Methods and compositions for producing pancreatic beta cells

ABSTRACT

Compositions and methods of producing mammalian cell populations that include a high proportion of pancreatic beta cells are described herein. Such cell populations are useful for treatment of diabetes. Also provided are materials and methods for the direct differentiation of stem cells, such as embryonic stem cells, into functional pancreatic beta cells. The disclosure provides the benefit of direct differentiation, which results in the production of functional pancreatic beta cells efficiently and at low cost.

CROSS-REFERENCE

This application is a 35 U.S.C. § 371 national stage entry of International Application No. PCT/US2016/044096, filed Jul. 26, 2016, which application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 62/197,198 filed Jul. 27, 2015, 62/204,928 filed Aug. 13, 2015, and 62/207,200 filed Aug. 19, 2015, each of which applications is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. This application is related to PCT application PCT/US2014/048258, filed Jul. 25, 2014, published as WO 2015/013653, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under grant no. RO1 DK105831 awarded by The National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD

The disclosure generally relates to cell differentiation and methods of inducing cell differentiation as well as uses of the differentiated cells in cell therapy and in screens for modulators of cell differentiation.

INTRODUCTION

Diabetes mellitus type 1 and 2 (T1D, T2D) are diseases characterized by autoimmune destruction or progressive dysfunction and subsequent loss of insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells, respectively. For example, Type-1 diabetes results from autoimmune destruction of the insulin-secreting beta cells within pancreatic islets. Typically it affects children and young adults. Current methods for management of type 1 diabetes generally require frequent glucose monitoring and life-long insulin administration. Current treatments for both types of patients with diabetes include regulating blood glucose levels through injections of exogenous insulin. While this approach provides reasonable management of the diseases, unwanted risks and long-term complications persist due to the inability of tightly maintaining glucose levels within a normal physiological range. Complications include life-threatening episodes of hypoglycemia, as well as long-term complications from hyperglycemia resulting in micro- and macro-angiopathy leading to cardiovascular pathologies and kidney failure, as well as neuropathy.

In conjunction with new strategies to induce immune tolerance, the transplantation of healthy islet and beta cells to replace the lost cells may be a cure for the disease. However, a primary challenge remains—the scarcity of functional, glucose-responsive beta cells. One existing approach to treating diabetes is transplantation of human cadaveric islet preparations into patients. This procedure typically results in better glycemic control, can render patients insulin independent for prolonged periods of time, and improves overall quality of life (Shapiro et al, 2000; Barton et al, 2012; Posselt et al, 2010). However, the severe shortage of cadaveric organ donors, requirement for lifelong immunosuppression, and variability between islet preparations hampers the use of islet transplantation as a readily available treatment for people with diabetes. Consequently, numerous research efforts have focused on identifying abundant alternative sources of surrogate glucose-responsive insulin-producing cells (Hebrok, 2012; Efrat & Russ, 2012; Nostro & Keller, 2012; Tuduri & Kieffer, 2011; Bouwens et al, 2013; Zhou & Melton, 2008; Pagliuca & Melton, 2013). One of the most appealing approaches is the directed differentiation into insulin-producing cells from pluripotent human embryonic stem cells (hESC)(D'Amour et al, 2005; Nostro et al, 2011; Guo et al, 2013b; Van Hoof et al, 2011; Mfopou et al, 2010; Chen et al, 2009; Xu et al, 2011; Shim et al, 2014) and more recently, induced pluripotent stem cells (Maehr et al, 2009; Shang et al, 2014; Hua et al, 2013).

Researchers have been hopeful that stem cells could provide an unlimited source of functional beta cells. Stepwise differentiation conditions have been proposed that recapitulate developmental signaling and that purportedly differentiate pluripotent stem cells through a definitive endoderm stage all the way into functional pancreatic beta cells (D'Amour, Agulnick et al. 2005; Yasunaga, Tada et al. 2005; Gouon-Evans, Boussemart et al. 2006; Jiang, Shi et al. 2007; Kroon, Martinson et al. 2008; Green, Chen et al. 2011). However, use of stem cells as the starting material for generating pancreatic cells has problems, including lack of availability, potential immunological rejection, and social concerns.

Direct beta-cell reprogramming methods could be faster and more efficient than preparing induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). However, a general approach to converting non-endoderm cells, such as fibroblast cells, across the germ-layer boundary towards an endoderm-beta cell lineage has not yet been developed. Cell types derived from the endoderm lineage, such as acinar cells or hepatocytes, might be easier to reprogram into a beta cell lineage owing to their similarity to beta cells. However, these methods have not been successfully applied to cell-based therapy or in vivo therapy because of the practicality of obtaining useful quantities of starting cells. In addition, beta-like cells generated by conventional direct reprogramming are post-mitotic and have very limited regenerative ability.

Comprehensive knowledge of signaling events and temporal transcription factor (TF) expression patterns during rodent pancreas organogenesis (Pan & Wright, 2011; Seymour & Sander, 2011; Hebrok, 2003; Murtaugh & Melton, 2003) have accelerated the identification of culture conditions that allow the generation of pancreatic cell types from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC). Early developmental stages, including definitive endoderm, gut tube-like cells and pancreatic progenitors can be efficiently induced in vitro. Subsequent transitions towards hormone-expressing cells in vitro are less efficient, however, and frequently lead to the formation of a mixed population of different pancreatic progenitors and polyhormonal endocrine cells (Guo et al, 2013a; Nostro et al, 2011; D'Amour et al, 2006). Such polyhormonal cells express insulin among other hormones, but lack expression of key pancreatic beta cell transcription factors and do not secrete insulin in vitro in response to a glucose challenge—the hallmark function of bona fide pancreatic beta cells (Guo et al, 2013a; Nostro et al, 2011; D'Amour et al, 2006). Nonetheless, transplantation of such heterogeneous cultures into surrogate mice results in the formation of glucose-responsive pancreatic beta cells after several months in vivo (Rezania et al, 2012; Kroon et al, 2008; Szot et al, 2014).

Sophisticated sorting experiments identified progenitor cells expressing Pancreatic and Duodenal Homeobox 1 TF (PDX1, also known as IPF1) and homeobox protein NKX6.1 as the source for these functional pancreatic beta cells (Kelly et al, 2011). While polyhormonal cells have been identified in human fetal pancreas, suggesting that they may reflect aspects of the normal embryonic differentiation process (Riedel et al, 2011; De Krijger et al, 1992), increasing evidence indicates that hESC-derived polyhormonal cells preferentially give rise to single hormone-positive alpha-like cells (Rezania et al, 2011). Thus, to fully replicate human pancreatic beta cell development in vitro, it is important to better understand and accurately recapitulate the sequence of embryonic signals required for the proper specification of pancreatic beta cell precursors, rather than alpha cell precursors.

During normal in vivo pancreatic organogenesis, functional pancreatic beta cells are generated through a step-wise specification process starting with pancreatic progenitors, identified by the expression of PDX1 (Herrera et al, 2002). While PDX1⁺ cells can give rise to all pancreatic lineages (Herrera et al, 2002), the subsequent induction of NKX6.1 in these cells restricts their differentiation potential to only endocrine and ductal cells (Schaffer et al, 2010). Endocrine differentiation is then initiated in PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitors by short-lived expression of the basic helix-loop-helix Transcription Factor Neurogenin 3 (NEUROG3, also known as NGN3) (Gu et al, 2002). Interestingly, the timing of NEUROG3 expression has been shown to be important in promoting the formation of diverse endocrine islet cell types (Johansson et al, 2007). For example, precocious induction of endocrine differentiation by forced expression of NEUROG3 in mice results predominantly in the generation of alpha cells (Johansson et al, 2007).

Apparent from the preceding discussion, generation of functional insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells for the effective treatment of diabetes is a key area of translational research. Stepwise differentiation protocols have been devised to guide the differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and, more recently, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), into definitive endoderm, primitive gut tube endoderm, posterior foregut endoderm, and pancreatic endoderm (PE). These hESC-derived PE cells can mature into functional pancreatic beta cells in vivo after prolonged periods following transplantation into immunodeficient mice. More recently, improved differentiation protocols have been described that allow the formation of functional pancreatic beta cells from hESCs under cell culture conditions. While these findings are encouraging, several challenges remain and significant efforts have been directed towards further improvement of differentiation conditions, the expansion of cells at different progenitor stages, and the purification of target cell populations in order to obtain sufficient quantities of functional pancreatic beta cells.

A reliable and reproducible source of human pancreatic beta cells is so far unavailable. Developing a source for greater numbers of human pancreatic beta cells would have wide application in basic research, drug and toxicology screens, and as a therapeutic product. There is a need for treatments that provide superior control of glucose metabolism to minimize (e.g., eliminate) long-term complications. There is a need for the directed differentiation of stem cells (e.g., pluripotent stem cells such as human pluripotent stem cells) into functional insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells for the treatment of diabetes.

SUMMARY

The problem of how to obtain or generate significant numbers of pancreatic beta-like cells has been solved by use of the compositions and methods described herein. The pancreatic beta-like cells express insulin protein and key transcription factors, but only rarely express other hormones. Compositions and methods are described herein for producing mammalian cell populations that include a high proportion of pancreatic beta-like cells and/or mature pancreatic cells. The pancreatic beta-like cells and mature pancreatic cells so produced may be particularly useful for treatment of diabetes.

This disclosure describes the efficient generation of such cells in vitro. In addition, the disclosed technology offers an improved strategy for pancreatic beta cell survival upon transplantation by implementing the disclosed method for direct differentiation of pancreatic beta cells from embryonic stem cells, such as human embryonic stem cells, in the presence of physiological levels of oxygen.

Cell therapies utilizing functional insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells produced from human stem cells hold great promise for the treatment of diabetes. Current pancreatic differentiation protocols induce precocious endocrine differentiation, leading to the formation of undesired polyhormonal endocrine cells. The disclosure provides a simplified suspension-culture-based differentiation protocol that allows for the correct temporal specification of pancreatic and endocrine progenitors into glucose-responsive pancreatic beta cells in vitro. This approach provides a fast and reproducible supply of functional pancreatic beta cells (e.g., human pancreatic beta cells) and enables detailed investigations into pancreas development and pancreatic beta cell biology. Features of the technology disclosed herein may include the exclusion of commonly used BMP inhibitors during embryonic stem cell-to-pancreatic progenitor cell differentiation, which prevents precocious endocrine induction. Sequential exposure of foregut cells to retinoic acid followed by combined EGF/KGF treatment of extended duration establishes highly pure PDX1⁺ and PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor populations, respectively. Precise temporal induction of endocrine differentiation in PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitors, but not in PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitors, results in the generation of functional pancreatic beta cells in vitro. The pancreatic beta cells produced by the disclosed methods exhibit key features of bona fide human pancreatic beta cells, remain functional after short-term transplantation, and reduce blood glucose levels in diabetic mice.

Elaborating on the preceding observations, current pancreatic progenitor differentiation protocols promote precocious endocrine commitment, ultimately resulting in the generation of non-functional polyhormonal cells. Omission of commonly used BMP inhibitors during pancreatic specification prevents precocious endocrine formation while treatment with retinoic acid followed by combined EGF/KGF efficiently generates both PDX1⁺ and subsequent PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ pancreatic progenitor populations, respectively. Precise temporal activation of endocrine differentiation in PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitors produces glucose responsive pancreatic beta cells in vitro that exhibit key features of bona fide human pancreatic beta cells, remain functional after short-term transplantation, and reduce blood glucose levels in diabetic mice. Thus, the disclosed system is a simplified and scalable system that accurately recapitulates key steps of human pancreas development, providing a fast and reproducible supply of functional human pancreatic beta cells.

The methods disclosed herein result in pancreatic beta cells exhibiting improved function, as evidenced by a rapid and robust response to glucose. The experiments disclosed herein show that more insulin is produced with vitamin C and BayK-8644 in the culture system, as evidenced by GFP reporter gene expression levels and human C-peptide staining Thus, the improved functionality of the pancreatic beta cells produced using the methods disclosed herein is apparent from both qualitative and quantitative measures.

In one aspect, the disclosure provides a method of generating a PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor cell by initially exposing a stem cell (e.g., an embryonic stem cell such as a human embryonic stem cell or hESC) to an effective amount of a retinoic acid compound, thereby inducing formation of a PDX1⁺ progenitor cell. In some embodiments, the embryonic stem cell is a human embryonic stem cell. In some embodiments, the embryonic stem cell is contacted with a retinoic acid compound in vitro. Embodiments are also contemplated that further comprise not contacting the embryonic stem cell with a bone morphogenic protein (BMP) inhibitor prior to expression of NKX6.1 by the cell. Omitting BMP from the protocol for generating PDX1⁺ progenitor cells prevents precocious endocrine differentiation that can lead to nonfunctional polyhormonal cells as schematically shown in FIG. 15. PDX1 progenitor cells can then be exposed to an effective amount of epidermal growth factor (EGF), keratinocyte growth factor (KGF), or a combination of EGF and KGF for extended time periods, thereby inducing formation of a PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor cell. In some of these embodiments, the cell expresses NKX6.1 prior to the cell contacting at least one of epidermal growth factor and keratinocyte growth factor. In some of these embodiments, the cell expresses NKX6.1 prior to contacting epidermal growth factor and keratinocyte growth factor. In some embodiments, cells are exposed to EGF and KGF simultaneously.

In yet other embodiments, the method further comprises inducing the PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor cell to express NEUROG3, resulting in production of an INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ beta cell. In some embodiment, the NEUROG3 expression is induced by contacting the PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor cell with an effective amount of an inhibitor of bone morphogenetic protein, an inhibitor of TGFβ/ALK, or an inhibitor of sonic hedgehog. Embodiments are contemplated wherein the PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor cell is contacted by an effective amount of an inhibitor of bone morphogenetic protein and an effective amount of an inhibitor of TGFβ/ALK. In some embodiments, the PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor cell is contacted by an effective amount of an inhibitor of bone morphogenetic protein and an effective amount of an inhibitor of sonic hedgehog. In some embodiments, the inhibitor of bone morphogenetic protein is Noggin and/or the inhibitor of sonic hedgehog is Cyclopamine.

This aspect of the disclosure further provides methods wherein the NEUROG3 expression is induced by exposure of the PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor cell to effective amounts of a TATA-Binding Protein, an Activin receptor-Like Kinase inhibitor, Noggin and Keratinocyte Growth Factor (KGF or K). In some embodiments, the NEUROG3 expression begins before expression of NKX2.2 is detected. In some embodiments, no more than 5% of the generated cells are polyhormonal cells. In some embodiments, the INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ beta cell is responsive to glucose levels. In some of these embodiments, the INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ beta cell secretes an increased level of insulin in response to an increased glucose level.

Also provided by this aspect of the disclosure are methods that further comprise contacting the PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor cell with an effective amount of vitamin C and/or an effective amount of BayK-8644. As disclosed herein, the addition of vitamin C, BayK-8644 or both vitamin C and BayK-8644 improves the generation of functional pancreatic beta cells, also referred to herein as an INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ beta cells, from stem cells such as embryonic stem cells (e.g., hESCs).

Some embodiments of the methods according to the disclosure are provided wherein the INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ beta cell does not express a detectable level of the Ki67 marker.

Another aspect of the disclosure is a method for generating an INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ beta cell further compromising transplanting the INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ beta cell into a human. In some embodiments, the human is diabetic.

Consistent with the foregoing descriptions, an aspect of the disclosure is drawn to a method of producing a pancreatic beta cell from a stem cell comprising: (a) exposing a stem cell to Epidermal Growth Factor (e.g., 10-300 ng/ml Epidermal Growth Factor) and/or Keratinocyte Growth Factor (e.g., 10-300 ng/ml Keratinocyte Growth Factor) for 12-72 hours[e.g., in DMEM comprising 0.1-5.0 mM glutamine (0.05-2.5X GLUTAMAX™; Invitrogen), 0.5-3.0X (e.g., IX) Invitrogen non-essential amino acids, and 0.5-3.0X (e.g., IX) B27 supplement (Invitrogen)] under conditions suitable for cell culture growth, thereby maintaining a progenitor cell; (b) incubating the progenitor cell in a culture medium (e.g., culture medium comprising DMEM) comprising nonessential amino acids (e.g., 0.1-5X non-essential amino acids, e.g., IX non-essential amino acids) (e.g., Invitrogen non-essential amino acids), glutamine (e.g., 0.1-5 mM glutamine) or GLUTAMAX™ (e.g., 0.05-2.5X GLUTAMAX™), heparin (e.g., 2-20 μg/ml heparin), cysteine (e.g., 0.2-5 mM cysteine), zinc (e.g., 2-20 μM zinc), ALK inhibitor (e.g., 2-20 μM ALK inhibitor), BMP inhibitor LDN-193189 (e.g., 0.2-2 μM BMP inhibitor LDN-193189), T3 thyroid hormone (e.g., 0.2-5 μT3 thyroid hormone) and secretase inhibitor XX (e.g.; 0.2-5 μM gamma secretase inhibitor XX, e.g., from Calbiochem) to yield a cell in culture; and (c) adding to the cell in culture vitamin C (e.g., 10-2000 μM vitamin C) and BayK-8644 (e.g., 0.2-5 μM BayK-8644), thereby producing a functional pancreatic beta cell. In some embodiments of the method, the stem cell is (a) exposed to 50 ng/ml Epidermal Growth Factor or 50 ng/ml of Keratinocyte Growth Factor for 12-72 hours in DMEM comprising 2 mM glutamine (IX GLUTAMAX™; Invitrogen), 0.1-5X (e.g., IX) Invitrogen non-essential amino acids, and 0.1-5X (e.g., IX) B27 supplement (Invitrogen); (b) Incubated in DMEM comprising 0.1-5X (e.g.; IX) Invitrogen non-essential amino acids, 2 mM glutamine (IX GLUTAMAX™), 10 μg/ml heparin, 1 mM cysteine, 10 μM zinc, 10 μM ALK inhibitor, 0.5 μM BMP inhibitor LDN-193189, 1 μM T3 thyroid hormone and 1 μM gamma secretase inhibitor XX(Calbiochem) to yield a cell in culture; and (c) Adding to the cell in culture 500 μM vitamin C and 2 μM BayK-8644, thereby producing a functional pancreatic beta cell. In some embodiments, the stem cell is exposed to Epidermal Growth Factor or Keratinocyte Growth Factor for 24 hours to 32 days, e.g., 24-48 hours, 48 hours to 3 days, 3 days to 5 days, 5 days to 10 days, 10 days to 20 days, or 20 days to 32 days. In some embodiments, the stem cell is an embryonic stem cell, such as a human stem cell. Embodiments are also envisioned wherein the stem cell is exposed to epidermal growth factor, or to keratinocyte growth factor, or to both epidermal growth factor and keratinocyte growth factor.

The methods disclosed herein result in the efficient production of pancreatic beta cells of improved functionality in exhibiting improved response to glucose. With the addition of vitamin C and Bay K-8644, insulin production is increased, as evident by the strength of the fluorescent signal resulting from expression of GFP in the pancreatic beta cells produced by the disclosed methods. Thus, the disclosed methods lead to the production of pancreatic beta cells exhibiting a qualitative and quantitative improvement in functionality. In some embodiments, the functional pancreatic beta cell exhibits a several-fold, for example a 1-7-fold, increase in insulin secretion upon stimulation with glucose. Embodiments are also contemplated wherein the pancreatic beta cell is functional immediately upon transplantation, and embodiments are envisioned in which the pancreatic beta cell is functional within one week of transplantation. Embodiments are also contemplated wherein the pancreatic beta cell remains functional for at least four weeks, or longer. Yet other embodiments further comprise exposure of the stem cell to an oxygen level no greater than 10% O₂, such as an oxygen level no greater than 5% O₂, or no greater than 4% O₂. In some embodiments, NGN3 and PDX1/NKX6.1 are expressed during the incubating step and the adding step. Embodiments are comprehended wherein at least 75% of the stem cells differentiate into functional pancreatic beta cells. The percentage yield of pancreatic beta cells (i.e., 75% pancreatic beta cells) was observed in experiments where cells are dissociated and allowed to reaggregate in smaller clusters using Aggrewells (StemCellTechnology) cell culture plates. Controls (undissociated clusters) reveal fewer pancreatic beta cells (about 65%). As shown in mice, Notch signaling is important in endocrine differentiation and indicates induction of endocrine differentiation upon disruption of cell-cell contact. It is expected that another influential factor is the better nutrition supplied to smaller cell clusters. Consistent with the data disclosed herein, an average of about 7,000 cells per cluster were generated in ambient oxygen and about 4.000 cells per cluster were generated at physiological oxygen levels. Other embodiments of the method are envisioned wherein the progenitor cell is maintained for up to 32 days in culture containing Epidermal Growth Factor and/or Keratinocyte Growth Factor.

Another aspect of the disclosure provides a functional pancreatic beta cell produced according to the method described above. In some embodiments of this aspect of the disclosure, the functional pancreatic beta cell is a human cell. In some embodiments, the cell expresses at least three pancreatic cell markers selected from the group of human c-peptide (C-PEP), Chromagranin A (CHGA), transcription factor NKX6.1, transcription factor PDX1, transcription factor PAX6, transcription factor NKX2.2, transcription factor NEUROD1 and transcription factor ISL1, without inducing expression of other hormones, e.g., Glucagon (GCG) or Somatostatin (SST), that serve as markers for cells other than pancreatic beta cells.

Yet another aspect of the disclosure is drawn to a method for treating diabetes comprising administering an effective amount of the cell disclosed herein to a diabetic subject, such as a human. One aspect of the invention is a method of converting pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells to pancreatic beta-like cells by (a) contacting the pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells with a first composition that includes heparin, zinc salts, a TGF-β inhibitor (e.g., Alk5 inhibitor), a BMP4 signaling inhibitor (e.g., LDN-193189), a T3 thyroid hormone, a Notch Signaling Inhibitor (e.g., Compound E), a Ca²⁺ channel agonist (e.g. BayK-8644), vitamin C, and combinations thereof to generate a first population of partially differentiated pancreatic beta-like cells; (b) contacting the first population of cells with a second composition that includes heparin zinc salts, a TGF-β inhibitor (e.g., Alk5 inhibitor), a BMP4 signaling inhibitor (e.g., LDN-193189), a T3 thyroid hormone, cysteine, an anti-oxidant (e.g., vitamin E or a derivative thereof such as TROLOX®), an Axl kinase inhibitor (e.g., R428), a Ca²⁺ channel agonist (e.g. BayK-8644), vitamin C, and combinations thereof to generate a second population of pancreatic beta-like cells. In a third step, the second population of cells can be cultured to generate 3D aggregates under low-attachment plates. The pancreatic beta cells that are generated can be administered to treat diabetes.

The application also provides methods for converting adult cells (e.g., mammalian starting cells such as fibroblasts) into cells of the endodermal lineage. Once those cells have been converted into endodermal progenitor cells, they can be differentiated into pancreatic beta cells using the method described in the previous paragraph.

Thus, another aspect of the invention is a method that involves: (a) contacting starting mammalian cells with a first composition comprising an effective amount of a TGFβ family member and a WNT activator, while the mammalian cells express pluripotency factors comprising OCT4, SOX2, and KLF4, wherein the effective amount is sufficient to generate a first cell population comprising definitive endoderm cells and wherein at least about 5% of the cells in the first population express Sox17 and/or Foxa2, but where the first cell population does not express detectable NANOG; and (b) contacting cells from the first cell population with a second composition comprising an effective amount of a TGFβ receptor inhibitor, a hedgehog pathway inhibitor, and a retinoic acid receptor agonist to generate a second cell population comprising pancreatic progenitor cells, wherein at least about 10% of the cells in the second population express Pdx1, Nkx6.1, Hnf6, or a combination thereof.

Another aspect of the invention is a method that involves contacting an endodermal cell population with an expansion composition that includes growth factors, a WNT activator, and a TGFβ receptor inhibitor for a time sufficient to expand cell numbers by at least ten-fold and thereby generate an expanded population of posterior foregut-like progenitor cells.

The methods can further include administering the second cell population, posterior foregut-like progenitor cells, pancreatic progenitor cells obtained from the second cell population, functional pancreatic beta-like cells obtained therefrom, or a combination thereof, to a mammal in need thereof. For example, such a mammal can have type I diabetes, type II diabetes, or type 1.5 diabetes.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1A-1D illustrate reprogramming of fibroblasts to definitive endodermal like cells (DELCs) with an iPSC-factor-based lineage-specific reprogramming paradigm. FIG. 1A schematically illustrates two approaches for reprogramming fibroblasts. Approach-1 (App1) involved transient iPSC-factor expression (induced by doxycycline (Dox) addition to the culture medium) in fibroblasts followed by adding definitive endoderm induction factors Activin A (AA) and lithium chloride (LiCl); Approach-2 (App2) involved addition of definitive endoderm induction factors AA and LiCl during the transient doxycycline-induced iPSC-factor expression. FIG. 1B graphically illustrates expression of Sox17 and Foxa2 on Day 12 (day 12) after treating fibroblasts by either Approach 1 or Approach 2, where expression levels were assessed by quantitative PCR. The results are the average of 3 independent experiments. *P<0.05. FIG. 1C graphically illustrates the total number of all the colonies (cross-hatched bar) as well as Sox17⁺/Foxa2⁺ double positive colonies (open bar), where the colonies were generated by using Approach 1 or Approach 2. The results are the average of three independent experiments. FIG. 1D graphically illustrates the percentage of Sox17⁺/Foxa2⁺ double positive colonies generated by Approach 1 or Approach 2. The results are the average of three independent experiments.

FIGS. 2A-2G illustrate the proof-of-concept (POC) approach described herein for reprogramming mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) into definitive endodermal like cells (DELCs), then into pancreatic progenitor like cells (PPLCs), and then into pancreatic β-like cells (PLCs). FIG. 2A is a schematic diagram of the approach to generating pancreatic-like cells from fibroblasts by Approach 2. Med-IV contains laminin, nicotinamide, and B27 etc., based on a previous report (Schroeder et al., 2006). FIG. 2B shows images of cells immunostained to identify expression of definitive endoderm markers Sox17, CXCR4, Foxa2 and Cerberus1 in cells on day 12 (D12) of the process outlined in FIG. 2A. FIG. 2C graphically illustrates expression of Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus1, and CXCR4 (left to right panels) in cells treated for twelve days (DO to D12) by the method shown in FIG. 2A. NGFP1 induced pluripotent stem cell-derived definitive endoderm like cells (DE) were used as a positive control. FIG. 2D shows images of cells immunostained on D18 for pancreatic progenitor markers Pdx1, Hnf6, Pax6, and Nkx6.1 (left to right panels). FIG. 2E graphically illustrates expression of Pdx1, Nkx6.1, Hnf6, and Pax6 in cells treated from days D12 to D18 with the method shown in FIG. 2A. FIG. 2F shows images of cells immunostained for pancreatic β cell markers insulin (Ins) and C-peptide (C-PEP) on D27. FIG. 2G graphically illustrates expression of Ins1 and Ins2 in cells treated from D18 to D27 with the method shown in FIG. 2A. The results in FIGS. 2C, 2E, and 2G are the average of at least three independent experiments. *P<0.05, **P<0.01.

FIGS. 3A-3B show that small molecules enhance induction of definitive endoderm-like cells (DELCs) into pancreatic progenitor like cells (PPLCs). FIG. 3A graphically illustrates expression of Pdx1 and Nkx6.1 on day 16 (D16) when the indicated factors of the protocol outlined in FIG. 4A are employed. Cells were treated with indicated small molecules from day 12 to day 16 (D12 to D16). The results shown are the average of 3 independent experiments. *P<0.05. FIG. 3B shows images of cells immunostained on day 16 (D16) for Pdx1 and Nkx6.1 after treatment with the indicated conditions.

FIGS. 4A-4F illustrates identification of novel small molecule conditions that enhanced generation of pancreatic progenitor-like cells that are readily converted in the pancreatic beta cells. FIG. 4A is a schematic diagram of the advanced approach where additional small molecules (Bix (Bix-01294), and pVc (2-Phospho-L-ascorbic acid trisodium salt), A83, and/or SB(SB203580)) are employed that significantly improve induction of the pancreatic progenitor-like phenotype. As illustrated, mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) are redirected to form Intermediate Cells (IMCs) by exposure to doxycycline (which induces pluripotency factor expression), Activin A, LiCl, Bix (Bix-01294), and pVc (2-Phospho-L-ascorbic acid trisodium salt) between days 0-6. Further exposure of the IMCs to Activin A, LiCl, and pVc directs the cells to differentiate into definitive endoderm-like cells (DELCs) by day 12. When the DELCs are exposed to retinoic acid (RA), A83-01, LDE225 and pVc, they differentiate into pancreatic progenitor-like cells (PPLCs) by day 16, which can be further differentiated into insulin-producing pancreatic-like cells (PLCs) by day 25. FIG. 4B shows images of cells immunostained on Day 16 for pancreatic progenitor markers, Nkx6.1, Pdx1, Sox9, Pax6, and Hnf6. Cells were treated with the combination of four small molecules (RA, A83-01, LDE225 and pVc) from D12 to D16 to generate the cells shown in FIG. 4B. FIG. 4C graphically illustrates expression of the indicated markers at days 12, 14 and 16 during the pancreatic progenitor induction process as detected by quantitative PCR. The results are the average of 3 independent experiments. *P<0.05, **P<0.01. FIG. 4D shows images of cells immunostained on D16 for Pdx1 and Nkx6.1. FIG. 4E graphically illustrates Pdx1⁺/Nkx6.1⁺ colony numbers on D16 after treatment of cells with the indicated conditions. 4000 cells were seeded into each well of a 24-well plate on DO. The results are the average of 3 independent experiments. *P<0.05. FIG. 4F shows images of cells immunostained on day 12 (D12) for expression of Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus1 and CXCR4. Bix (Bix-01294) at 1 μM was added from DO to D6 and pVc (2-Phospho-L-ascorbic acid trisodium salt) at 280 μM was added to the cells from DO to D12 before the images shown in FIGS. 4B, 4D, and 4F were taken.

FIGS. 5A-5D show that pancreatic progenitor-like cells can be differentiated into pancreatic-like cells. FIG. 5A shows images of cells immunostained on day 25 (D25) to show which cells express Pdx1 and insulin, after SB(SB203580) at 50 μM was added from D16 to D25, and pVc (2-Phospho-L-ascorbic acid trisodium salt) at 280 μM was added from D16 to D25. FIG. 5B graphically illustrates expression of Ins1, Ins2, Pdx1 and Nkx6.1 during the process as assessed by quantitative PCR. The results are the average of 3 independent experiments. *P<0.05, **P<0.01. FIG. 5C shows images of cells immunostained on day 25 (D25) to show which cells express the pancreatic cell markers insulin, Glucagon, Somatostatin, Amylase and Nkx6.1. FIG. 5D graphically illustrates insulin release on day 25 by cells treated as described herein. The results are the average of 4 independent experiments. *P<0.05. As indicated, the pancreatic cells produced by the methods described herein express insulin in a glucose dose-responsive manner.

FIGS. 6A-6D shows that induced pluripotent stem cells were not generated during the reprogramming process. FIG. 6A graphically illustrates gene expression of the indicated markers as a function of time during the reprogramming process, as assessed by quantitative PCR. The expression levels of pluripotency genes, Nanog and Rex1; of definitive endoderm marker genes, Sox17 and Foxa2; of pancreatic progenitor markers Pdx1 and Nkx6.1; and of pancreatic beta cell markers Ins1 and Ins2 are shown. NGFP1 iPS cells (iPS) are used as positive control for Nanog and Rex1 expression. Definitive endoderm like cells (DE) derived from NGFP1 iPS cells were used as a positive control for Sox17 and Foxa2 expression. The results are the average of four independent experiments. *P<0.05, **P<0.01. FIG. 6B shows images of cells tracing the direct reprogramming process over time from mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF; at day 0) to definitive endodermal like cells (DELCs) at day 12. Bright-field and fluorescence images were taken at the indicated times. Representative immunostaining of Sox17 and Foxa2 on Day 12 is also shown (last panel, D12). Secondary MEF cells that were cultured in Med-I with Dox and LIF for 17 days are shown as a positive control (first panel, Ctrl). FIG. 6C shows images of cells tracing the induction/differentiation process of DELC to PPLC. The last image shows representative immunostaining of cells to identify Pdx1 and Nkx6.1 expression on Day 16. FIG. 6D shows images of cells tracing the induction/differentiation process of PPLC to pancreatic like cells. The right-most image shows representative immunostaining of cells exhibiting Ins and Glu expression on Day 25.

FIGS. 7A-7D shows that pancreatic progenitor like cells can regulate glucose levels and insulin secretion in vivo. FIG. 7A graphically illustrates blood glucose levels of normal mice and STZ-induced type I diabetic mice transplanted with MEF or PPLC cells (or controls not transplanted with cells) during the eight weeks (0 W, 1 W, etc.) following transplantation. Under anesthesia, diabetic mice received a renal subcapsular transplant of about 3×10⁶ pancreatic progenitor like cells (n=14; filled diamond symbols) or 3×10⁶ secondary MEF cells (n=10; filled square symbols). Untreated normal mice (n=4, lower line with X symbols) and mice treated with STZ only (n=4; filled triangle symbols) were used as controls. *P<0.05, **P<0.01. FIGS. 7B and 7C show images of kidney sections from mice engrafted with PPLCs, where the immunofluorescence identifies sites of gene expression. The C regions show images of regions containing transplanted cells, while the K regions identify kidney tissues. FIG. 7D graphically illustrates serum insulin levels in the serum of animals from each experimental or control group. The group of mice transplanted with MEF cells was set as control. **P<0.01.

FIGS. 8A-8G illustrate direct conversion of human fibroblasts into definitive endodermal progenitor cells. FIG. 8A is a schematic diagram of the procedure used to convert human fibroblasts into definitive endodermal progenitor cells (cDE cells) by combining non-integrating episomal reprogramming plasmids with specific initiation and conversion conditions. FIG. 8B shows bright-field images of control fibroblasts and a definitive endodermal progenitor cell (cDE) colony at day 21. Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 8C illustrates immunofluorescence staining of representative definitive endodermal progenitor cell (cDE) colonies at day 21 for the endodermal progenitor markers SOX17 and FOXA2. Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 8D graphically illustrates the colony number of number of FOXA2 positive colonies scored at day 28 after treatment of cells with various small molecule factors. Small molecules sodium butyrate (NaB), Parnate (Par), RG108 (RG), CHIR99021 (CHIR), and 5′-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (NECA) added to the basal condition to further enhance endodermal reprogramming efficiency. Data represent the number of FOXA2 positive colonies scored at day 28 (Mean values±standard error (s.e.m.) of three experiments). FIG. 8E graphically illustrates expression levels (relative quantity, RQ, values) of endodermal genes SOX17 and FOXA2, and endogenous pluripotent genes OCT4 (endoOCT4) and NANOG (endoNANOG) during the conversion process. Human ESCs (hES) served as a control. Mean values±s.e.m. of expression for the indicated gene were normalized to Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) expression for day 28 (d28) definitive endodermal progenitor cell cultures and hESCs, respectively (n=3 experiments). FIG. 8F graphically illustrates the percentage of cells expressing human pluripotent surface marker TRA-1-60 and endodermal marker FOXA2 during the conversion process as assessed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Human ESCs (hES) served as control for comparison. FIG. 8G shows images of definitive endodermal progenitor cell colonies at day 28, illustrating expression of early endodermal progenitor markers SOX17 and FOXA2 (upper panels, lighter areas), but not of the primitive gut tube marker HNF4A, posterior foregut marker HNF6, and pluripotency marker NANOG (middle panels) where only DAPI staining of nuclei is visible. Note that hESC served as positive control for NANOG staining (right panel in the middle row). Control fibroblasts (lower panels) do not express any marker analyzed. Scale bar, 20 μm.

FIGS. 9A-9P illustrate the specificity, expansion and characterization of human posterior foregut-like progenitor cells. FIG. 9A is a schematic representation of culture conditions for the amplification of definitive endodermal progenitor cells (cDE cells) that resulted in further specification into expandable posterior foregut-like progenitor cells (cPF cells). FIG. 9B illustrates that improved culture conditions allow amplification of cDE/cPF cell colonies. Mean values±s.e.m. represent three experiments. FIG. 9C shows images of colonies after 4 passages in improved expansion media indicating that the cells exhibit specification towards cPF cells as detected by immunofluorescence analysis. Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 9D is a schematic diagram of the process for cPF expansion. FIG. 9E graphically illustrates growth curves of cPF cells. Note that the cPF cell number increases at least a trillion fold. FIG. 9F graphically illustrates the effects of four media supplements, EGF, bFGF, A83-01, and CHIR99021 upon cell growth. As shown, the combination (“ALL”) of these factors improves cPF cell growth and self-renewal. FIG. 9G shows a bright field image of established cPF cells illustrating epithelial colony morphology. Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 9H illustrates expression of SOX17, FOXA2, HNF4α, HNF6, SOX9, and PDX1 in cPF cells at passage 15 as detected by immunofluorescence staining Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 9I graphically illustrates enrichment of transcripts for SOX17, FOXA2, HNF1A, HNF1B, HNF4A, HNF6, SOX9, and PDX1 transcripts, but not SOX1, BRY, OCT4 and NANOG in p15 cPF cells as detected by qPCR analysis. Mean values±s.e.m. were normalized to GAPDH relative to control fibroblasts. (n=3 experiments). FIG. 9J graphically illustrates qPCR analysis for the presence of episomal reprogramming vectors in established cPF cells (cPF p17) compared to fibroblasts 4 days after electroporation with episomal plasmids, serving as positive control (pos. CTR). Note that episomal vectors were undetectable by this method in cPF cells. Mean values±s.e.m. are shown (n=3 experiments). FIG. 9K shows images of kidney tissues after transplantation of hESC-derived definitive endodermal cells and cPF cells under the kidney capsule of immune deficient mice. None of the cPF cell grafts result in tumor formation, even after prolonged periods of up to 12 weeks in vivo (n=10 mice), while hESC-derived endodermal cell grafts (n=4 mice) resulted in tumorigenic structures with big cysts and increased graft size already after 7 weeks in vivo. FIG. 9L shows images of cPF cell grafts exhibiting epithelial structures that express E-cadherin, HNF4α, PDX1, SOX9, and pan-cytokeratin as detected by immunofluorescence analysis Human nuclear antigen (HuNu) identifies the human cell origin. Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 9M shows expression of transcription factor HNF4a (light areas; green in the original) and albumin (ALB; light areas, red in the original) by p5 and p14 cPF cells that were differentiated into hepatocytes. Nuclei are visualized by DAPI staining Scale bar, 50 μm. FIG. 9N shows a representative image of a haematoxylin and eosin stained cPF graft section. Stars indicated multiple epithelial structures. Scale bar, 50 μm. FIG. 9O shows expression of SOX17, FOXA2, HNF4A, HNF6, SOX9 and PDX1 by cPF cells obtained from human adult fibroblasts as observed by immunofluorescence analysis. Nuclei are visualized by DAPI staining. Scale bar, 50 μm. FIG. 9P shows expression of PDX1 and NKX6.1 by cPE cells obtained from human adult fibroblasts as observed by immunostaining Nuclei were visualized by DAPI staining Scale bar, 50 μm.

FIGS. 10A-10L illustrate the differentiation of human posterior foregut-like progenitor cells (cPF cells) into expandable pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells with the ability to mature into functional beta-like cells in vivo. FIG. 10A is a schematic diagram of a process for the differentiation of cPF cells into pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells (cPE cells). FIG. 10B and FIG. 10C illustrate expression (lighter areas) of pancreatic endodermal markers FOXA2, SOX9, HNF6, PDX1 and NKX6.1 in p1 cPE cells as detected by immunofluorescence staining Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 10D graphically illustrates the percentage of cells that express PDX1 and NKX6.1 in p1 cPE cells compared to control (Isotype CTR) as detected by flow cytometry. FIG. 10E is a schematic diagram illustrating procedures for the expansion of cPE cells. FIG. 10F graphically illustrates growth of cPE cells over time. Note that cPE cell number increases at least two hundred million fold. FIG. 10G illustrates expression of pancreatic endodermal markers PDX1 and NKX6.1 in p12 cPE cells as detected by immunofluorescence staining Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 10H graphically illustrates the percentage of p12 cPE cells that express PDX1 and NKX6.1 as detected by flow cytometry. FIG. 10I graphically illustrates enrichment of NKX2.2, NKX6.1, PDX1, FOXA2, HNF4A, HNF6, HLXB9, PTF1A, and NGN3 transcripts, while SOX17 expression is down regulated, in cPE cells relative to cPF cells. Gene expression was detected by qPCR analysis. Mean expression values±s.e.m. of the indicated genes were normalized to GAPDH and (n=3 experiments). FIG. 10 J graphically illustrates that detectable levels of human c-peptide (as detected by ELISA analysis) are present in the serum of 67% of mice bearing cPE cell grafts for 15 weeks and within 1 hour after glucose challenge. Moreover, human C-peptide levels as well as the percentage of mice exhibiting detectable levels of human C-peptide increase over time. Numbers on top of each bar indicate human C-peptide positive mice out of total mice assayed. FIG. 10K graphically illustrates human C-peptide levels before and after glucose challenge of mice bearing cPE cell grafts for 23-24 weeks as detected by ELISA analysis. As shown, the mice exhibit a functional response to glucose administration. The line at about 15 pM human C-peptide identifies the lower detection limit of the ELISA assay. The p-value was calculated using a two tailed students t-test. FIG. 10L illustrates co-expression of insulin (INS) and the beta cell transcription factors PDX1 and NKX6.1 but not of the hormone Glucagon (GCG) as detected by immunofluorescence analysis of 15-week-old cPE cell graft sections. Scale bar, 20 μm.

FIGS. 11A-11H illustrate maturation of cPE cells into human insulin-producing, glucose-responsive pancreatic beta-like cells (cPB) in vitro. FIG. 11A is a schematic diagram of the strategy employed to mature pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells (cPE cells) into pancreatic beta-like cells (cPB cells) in vitro. FIG. 11B illustrates expression of PDX1 and C-peptide in beta-like cells generated with basal pancreatic differentiation conditions in vitro as detected by immunofluorescence staining Scale bar, 20 μm. Basal pancreatic differentiation media contains A83-01 (A83), Nicotinamide (NIC), Forskolin (FSK), Dexamethasone (DEX) and Exendin-4 (Ex-4). FIG. 11C graphically illustrates the effects of several small molecules, Compound E (C-E), Vitamin C (Vc), and BayK-8644 (BayK) on the percentage of C-peptide positive cells. Note that combined treatment of all molecules results in an additive effect, further increasing the percentage of C-peptide positive cells. (n=3 experiments) FIG. 11D illustrates expression of several genes in converted pancreatic beta-like cells (cPB cells) as detected by immunofluorescence analysis. The cPB cells were generated with the improved pancreatic maturation conditions. Many of the insulin (INS) positive cells co-express key beta cell transcription factors including, PDX1, NKX6.1, NKX2.2, and NeuroD, but only rarely co-express endocrine progenitor marker NGN3 and the endocrine hormones, Glucagon (GCG) and Somatostatin (SST). Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 11E graphically illustrates human C-peptide levels (a marker for insulin release) during in vitro glucose stimulation of insulin secretion (GSIS) assays (n=7 cell cultures of 4 experiments). As shown, the cPB cells release insulin in response to physiological levels of glucose. Depolarization by higher KCl concentration further increased insulin secretion. Insulin release was measured by human specific C-peptide ELISA assay. The line at about 10-15 pM human C-peptide identifies the lower detection limit of the ELISA assay. The p-value was calculated using a two tailed students t-test. FIG. 11F illustrates the percentage of cPB cells converted from fibroblasts that express endodermal and pluripotency markers (PDX1, NKX6.1, NKX2.2) in as detected by flow cytometry of fluorophores A-488 and A-647. The first panel shows fluorescence by the secondary antibody only. FIG. 11G illustrates expression of several genes in cPB cells. Many of the insulin (INS) positive cells co-express key beta cell transcription factors PDX1, NKX6.1, NKX2.2, and NeuroD, but only rarely co-express endocrine progenitor marker NGN3. Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 11H shows high magnification micrographs of cPB cells. As shown, insulin (INS) and C-peptide staining is co-localized, excluding insulin uptake from the media as an explanation for C-peptide staining Scale bar, 20 μm.

FIG. 12A-12H illustrate improved maturation of cPE cells into insulin-producing, glucose-responsive cPB cells in vitro. FIG. 12A is a schematic diagram of the improved approach (protocol 2) employed to mature cPE cells into cPB cells in vitro. The improved protocol 2 consists of two candidate factors, Vitamin C (Vc) and BayK-8644 (BayK), identified by a chemical screen in conjugation with other factors described herein. FIG. 12B shows that addition of Vitamin C (Vc), and BayK-8644 (BayK) increases mRNA levels of INSULIN (INS) gene in differentiated cPB cultures at day 21. n=3 experiments. Statistical significance was calculated using two-tailed student's t-test, compared to DMSO controls. **P<0.01. FIG. 12C shows the immunofluorescence detected in cPB cells generated with the improved pancreatic maturation conditions. Many of the C-peptide (C-pep) positive cells co-express key beta cell transcription factors, PDX1 and NKX6.1, but only rarely co-express other endocrine hormones, Glucagon (GCG) and Somatostatin (SST). Scale bar, 50 μm. FIG. 12D graphically illustrates flow cytometric analysis of cPB cells for human C-peptide (C-pep), Glucagon (GCG) and Somatostatin (SST). FIG. 12E graphically illustrates the percent of total cells that express a C-pep alone or with GCG or SST. n=3 experiments. FIG. 12F graphically illustrates the amount of C-peptide detected in an in vitro glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) assay (n=7 cell cultures of 3 experiments). These results demonstrate that cPB cells release insulin in response to physiological levels of glucose. Depolarization by higher KCl concentration further increased insulin secretion. Note that insulin release was measured by human specific C-peptide ELISA assay. P-value was calculated using a two-tailed student's t-test. FIG. 12G is a schematic diagram of a lentiviral Insulin gene promoter reporter construct where the Insulin gene promoter is operably linked to an mCherry coding region. Pancreatic endodermal progenitor (cPE) cells were infected with the lentiviral construct before differentiation in to pancreatic beta-like (cPB) cells. After conversion of the cPE to cPB cells, the cPB cells were sorted, those expressing mCherry were collected, and the collected cPB cells were evaluated for expression of variety of genes. FIG. 12H graphically illustrates expression of the following genes in mCherry-expressing cPB cells (left bar) compared to primary human islet cells (right bar): INS, MAFA, PDX1, NKX6.1, NKX2.2, PCSK1, KIR6.2, SUR1, NEUROD1, RFX6, PAX6, GCK, SLC30A, and UCN3 8. P-values were calculated using a two-tailed student's t-test. *P<0.05, **P<0.01.

FIG. 13A-13D illustrate that transplanted pancreatic beta-like (cPB) cells generated by protocol 2 remain functional and protected mice from chemically induced diabetes. FIG. 13A is a schematic diagram of the transplantation of cPB into immunodeficient mice. FIG. 13B graphically illustrates the amount of human C-peptide as detected by ELISA analysis of serum from fasted and glucose challenged mice two months post transplantation with either fibroblasts (Fib) or cPB. cPB graft bearing mice exhibit significant higher levels of circulating human C-peptide in serum after a glucose bolus, indicating that transplanted cPB cells remain functional in vivo. Mice transplanted with Fib controls do not exhibit circulating human C-peptide. n=12 mice for cPB and n=5 mice for Fib. P-value was calculated using a two-tailed student's t-test. FIG. 13C shows the immunofluorescence of 2-month-old cPB cell grafts, illustrating the co-expression of C-peptide (C-pep) and the beta cell transcription factors PDX1 and NKX6.1 but not of the hormones Glucagon (GCG) and Somatostatin (SST). Scale bar, 50 μm. Data shown are representative of 2 mice. FIG. 13D graphically illustrates fed blood glucose levels of mice bearing cPB grafts (ovals) with circulating human C-peptide levels above 200 pM after glucose stimulation and control fibroblasts (diamonds) are shown. Mice were treated with the mouse specific beta cell toxin Streptozotocine (STZ) to ablate endogenous beta cells. Unilateral nephrectomy of cPB graft bearing mice 5 weeks after STZ treatment resulted in a rapid rise in blood glucose levels, directly demonstrating euglycemic control due to cPB grafts after STZ treatment in these mice. n=6 mice for cPB and n=6 mice for Fib. P-value was calculated using a two-tailed student's t-test. *P<0.05.

FIG. 14A-14D further illustrate the characteristics of functional pancreatic beta-like cells (cPB) from human adult fibroblasts generated according to FIG. 12A. FIG. 14A shows expression of C-peptide (C-pep), Glucagon (GCG) and Somatostatin (SST) by cPB cells (obtained from adult human fibroblasts) as detected by immunofluorescence analysis of Scale bar, 20 μm. FIG. 14B shows expression of human C-peptide (C-pep), Glucagon (GCG) and Somatostatin (SST) by cPB cells as detected by flow cytometric analysis. FIG. 14C graphically illustrates the percent of cPB cells (obtained from adult human fibroblasts) that express one or two of human C-pep and GCG or SST as detected by flow cytometry. FIG. 14D graphically illustrates the amount of human C-peptide expressed as detected by in vitro glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) assays (n=7 cell cultures of 4 experiments). As shown, the cPB cells (from adult human fibroblasts) release insulin in response to physiological levels of glucose. Depolarization by higher KCl concentration further increased insulin secretion. Note that insulin release was measured by human specific C-peptide ELISA assay. P-value was calculated using a two tailed student's t-test.

FIGS. 15A-15H. Pancreatic differentiation of hESCs using a large-scale culture system results in two distinct subsets of insulin-producing cells. FIG. 15A: Schematic outlining the differentiation method employed. R=Retinoic acid, C=Cyclopamine, N=Noggin, E=Epidermal growth factor, K=Keratinocyte growth factor, T=TBP, and A=ALK inhibitor. FIG. 15B: Micrograph of MEL1INS-GFP cell clusters after 17 days of differentiation demonstrating strong GFP expression (GFP expression in white). Scale bar=200 μm. FIG. 15C: Flow cytometric analysis at day 20 of differentiation showing 41.5% of all cells expressing GFP under the control of the endogenous insulin promoter. FIG. 15D: Quantification by flow cytometry of the average percentage of GFP cells within differentiated cultures after 19-24 days. n=7. Values are average±standard deviation (SD). FIG. 15E: Flow cytometric analysis of intracellular human-specific C-peptide (C-PEP) and insulin (INS) shows comparable percentages of C-PEP and INS positive cells. FIG. 15F: Immunofluorescence staining for C-PEP and glucagon (GCG), and flow cytometric quantification of GCG⁺/C-PEP⁺ (red gate), GCG⁻/C-PEP⁺ (black gate) populations at days 13 and 19 of differentiation. FIG. 15G: Immunofluorescence staining for C-PEP and NKX6.1, and flow cytometric quantification of NKX6.1⁺/INS⁺ (green gate) and NKX6.1⁻/INS⁺ (red gate) populations at days 13 and 19 Immunofluorescence insets show two distinct phenotypes for C-PEP cells (NKX6.1⁺ and NKX6.1⁻). A robust INS/NKX6.1 double positive population is only detected at day 19. FIG. 15H: Transmission electron microscopy of day 20 clusters. Cells contain both secretory vesicles with electron dense cores surrounded by electron light halos (green box), akin to bona fide pancreatic beta cell vesicles, as well as other granules similar to those found in non-beta pancreatic cells (red boxes).

FIGS. 16A-16D. Published protocols result in precocious endocrine differentiation by NEUROG3 activation. FIGS. 16A-C: Analysis of key pancreatic progenitor markers in clusters differentiated as outlined in FIG. 15A. R=Retinoic acid, C=Cyclopamine, N=Noggin, E=Epidermal growth factor, K=Keratinocyte growth factor, T=TBP, and A=ALK inhibitor. Data shown are representative of two independent experiments. FIG. 16A: PDX1, INS, GCG, NEUROG3, and NKX6.1 protein expression was assessed by whole mount staining of differentiated clusters at indicated time points. Note precocious expression of the endocrine marker NEUROG3 in the absence of NKX6.1 protein at days 6-9. FIGS. 16B and 16C: Flow cytometric quantification of PDX1⁺ (orange gate), PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ (blue gate), INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ (green gate), and INS⁺/NKX6.1⁻ (red gate) cells at indicated time points. FIG. 16D: qPCR analysis of NGN3 and NKX2.2 transcripts at day 8 of differentiation employing RCN (Retinoic acid (R), Cyclopamine (C), and Noggin (N)) or R with two different concentrations of vitamin C (Vit. C) treatment for 3 days or without treatment. Data are shown as the average±standard error, relative to RCN and normalized to GAPDH. (n=three independent experiments, technical duplicates).

FIGS. 17A-17C. Defining the temporal activities of individual signaling factors to efficiently generate PDX1⁺ and PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ pancreas progenitor populations while preventing precocious induction of endocrine differentiation. FIGS. 17A-C: Pancreatic progenitor marker expression at day 9.5 after treatment with conventional differentiation factors alone or in different combinations. Treatments consisted of combinations of Cyclopamine (C), Noggin (N), and retinoic acid (R) during days 6-8, followed by subdivision of each condition into three treatment groups during day 9-9.5. Group 1) continuation of day 6-8 treatment; Group 2) treatment with EGF and KGF (EK); Group 3) treatment with EGF, KGF, and Noggin (EKN). The condition selected for further studies, ‘10’, is marked with a green box. Data shown are representatives of results obtained in two independent experiments. FIG. 17A: Table detailing 18 different culture conditions that were evaluated. FIG. 17B: Quantification of PDX1 (orange gate) and NKX6.1 (blue gate) protein expressing cells in individual conditions after 9.5 days of differentiation. FIG. 17C: NKX6.1 and NEUROG3 protein expression assessed by whole mount staining of differentiated clusters at 9.5 days. Note robust NEUROG3 expression in all clusters exposed to N (conditions 3, 6, 9, and 12-18).

FIGS. 18A-18C. Recapitulating human pancreas organogenesis to generate endocrine progenitors. FIG. 18A: Schematic outlining a simplified differentiation strategy for the controlled, step-wise generation of pancreatic progenitor cell types. FIG. 18B: Time-course flow cytometric analysis illustrates the efficient generation of PDX1⁺ progenitor (orange gate) and PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor (blue gate) populations. Data from one of three independent experiments with similar results are shown. FIG. 18C: Immunofluorescence analysis of sections from differentiated clusters at indicated time points stained for human NKX2.2 (green) and NEUROG3 (red). Insets show NEUOG3/NKX2.2 double positive cells. Data from one of three independent experiments with similar results is shown.

FIGS. 19A-19F. Efficient generation of PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ pancreatic progenitor cells prior to endocrine induction results in pancreatic beta cells. FIG. 19A: Schematic outlining a simplified differentiation strategy for the controlled, step-wise generation of pancreatic progenitor and subsequent endocrine cell types. GFs=growth factors. FIG. 19B: Micrographs of differentiated clusters at day 19 under light microscopy (left picture) or fluorescent microscopy showing prominent GFP expression (right picture; GFP expression shown in white). FIG. 19C: Quantification of the percentage of human C-peptide positive cells at day 19-21. Values are average±SD. n=7 independent experiments. FIG. 19D: Immunofluorescence stainings of differentiated clusters at day 20 for insulin (INS), PDX1, NKX6.1, NKX2.2 and glucagon (GCG). One of four experiments with similar outcome is shown. FIG. 19E: Representative flow cytometry plots depicting co-expression of pancreatic markers PDX1, NKX6.1, NKX2.2, ISL1, NEUROD1, PAX6, Chromogranin A (CHGA), and GCG with human C-peptide at indicated time points. Black gates mark percentage of total cells positive for indicated marker on ‘Y’ axis. Green gates mark percentage of double positive pancreatic beta cells. The red gate marks percentage of INS⁺/GCG⁺ bihormonal cells. FIG. 19F: Flow cytometric quantification of C-peptide positive pancreatic beta cells co-expressing markers in ‘D’. A high percentage of pancreatic beta cells co-express all genes usually found in pancreatic beta cells, but not the hormone GCG. Values are average ±SD. n=4 for PDX1, n=19 for NKX6.1, n=4 for NKX2.2, n=9 for ISL1, n=9 for NEUROD1, n=5 for PAX6, n=6 for CHGA, and n=5 for GCG. Analysis was performed at days 15-21 of differentiation.

FIGS. 20A-20B. hESC derived pancreatic beta cells are post-mitotic. FIG. 20A: Proliferation of C-peptide⁺ pancreatic beta cells and C-peptide negative cell populations at days 18-20 was determined by co-staining with the proliferation marker Ki67. FIG. 20B: Immunofluorescence staining of differentiated clusters at day 20 for the proliferation marker Ki67 and human insulin (INS). Representative data from one of three experiments with similar results are shown.

FIGS. 21A-21G. Pancreatic beta cells exhibit key features of bona fide human pancreatic beta cells and are glucose responsive. FIGS. 21A-21D: Quantitative PCR analysis of selected gene transcripts in sorted GFP⁺ pancreatic beta cells (green bars (center bar for each x-axis group in 21A-21D)), GFP⁻ populations (blue bars (left bar for each x-axis group in 21A-21D)) and human islet preparations (black bars (right bar for each x-axis group in 21A-21D)). Results shown relative to the endogenous control GAPDH. RQ=relative quantification. Values are average ±SD. n=4 independent experiments for hESC-derived cell populations at days 19-20 and n=3 for human islets. FIG. 21E: Insulin, human C-peptide, and proinsulin content relative to DNA in pancreatic beta cells at day 19. Data presented is average ±standard error (n=3 independent experiments, technical duplicates). FIG. 21F: Transmission electron microscopy images of pancreatic beta cells at day 20. One of three experiments with similar results is shown. Scale bar=500 nm. Insets represent secretory vesicles akin to granules present in bona fide human pancreatic beta cells. FIG. 21G: Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) of human islets and pancreatic beta cells at days 19-20. ‘Y’ axis indicates ratio of insulin secreted in low glucose conditions to that secreted in high glucose conditions. Values are average ±standard deviation (SD) (n=3 for human islets and n=10 for pancreatic beta cells).

FIGS. 22A-22B. Efficient processing of insulin in hESC derived pancreatic beta cells. A: Western blot analysis of proinsulin processing to insulin in pancreatic beta cells at indicated time points. FIG. 22A human islet preparation is shown for comparison. Proceeding from left to right, Western blot panels of the following are provided: i) two human islet preparations, ii) hES9.3 cells sampled at days 17, 19 and 21, iii) hES9.6 cells sampled at days 17, 19 and 21, and iv) hES9.10 cells sampled at days 17 and 19, are shown. The Western blot was cropped to conserve space, enabling tubulin levels to be shown (as a higher molecular weight protein, tubulin ran above proinsulin and insulin in the gel subjected to Western blot). FIG. 22B: Quantification of proinsulin processing in FIG. 19E and panel A. n=3 for each time point of pancreatic beta cells and n=4 for human islets.

FIGS. 23A-23D. Pancreatic beta cells remain glucose responsive after short-term transplantation. FIG. 23A: Levels of circulating human c-peptide measured in sera of mice 7-10 days after transplantation with either 4000 human islets or 5.0×10⁶ direct-differentiated cells (containing approximately 1.15×10⁶ pancreatic beta cells). Fasting and challenge sera were collected following an overnight fast and 1 hour after intraperitoneal glucose challenge, respectively. Dashed line separates raw data from serum c-peptide measurements normalized to the number of pancreatic beta cells present in each human islet graft (4000 human islets transplanted each containing about 1000 cells, approximately 50% of which are pancreatic beta cells, hence 2.0×10⁶ pancreatic beta cells present in grafts total). n=5 for human islets and n=12 for hES-derived grafts. FIG. 23B: Hematoxylin and Eosin staining of day 14 graft. k=kidney, g=graft. Representative data from one of three mice are shown. FIG. 23C: Immunofluorescence staining of differentiated hES grafts 2 weeks post-transplantation for human C-peptide, Glucagon (GCG), Somatostatin (SST), PDX1, NKX6.1, and NKX2.2. Representative data from one of three mice are shown. FIG. 23D: Blood glucose (BG) levels of mice treated with streptozotocin to ablate endogenous beta-cells (STZ) followed by transplantation (Tx) of pancreatic beta cell containing clusters either at day 0 or day 4, as indicated (n=8, two independent differentiation experiments). Values are average ±standard deviation. Statistical significance was calculated using two-tailed t-test. p=*<0.05, **<0.01, and ***<0.001. Control (CTRL)=6-9 animals.

FIG. 24. Schematic illustration of the method for directly differentiating pancreatic beta cells from embryonic stem cells. The method involves extended exposure of cells to epidermal growth factor and/or keratinocyte growth factor (EGF/KGF). Progenitor cells can be maintained and expanded for extended periods of time. The method also involves optimized combinations and concentrations of known factors capable of inducing endocrine differentiation, marked by NGN3 expression, while maintaining the expression of PDX1/NKX6.1, resulting in the rapid and efficient generation of functional pancreatic beta cells. The method further involves exposure of cells to two novel factors, i.e., vitamin C and BayK-8644, which facilitate the generation of functional, improved pancreatic beta cells that are or resemble bona fide pancreatic beta cells.

FIGS. 25A-25I. Characterization of cells differentiated using the disclosed method of direct differentiation. FIG. 25A: Live image of differentiated cells expressing GFP under the control of the endogenous insulin promoter. FIG. 25B: Flow-based analysis of hormones glucagon and insulin (detected by human C-peptide staining) FIG. 25C: Histogram of C-peptide staining shown in C highlighting higher expression levels. FIG. 25D: Immunofluorescence analysis of pancreatic markers human c-peptide (C-PEP), Glucagon (GCG), Somatostatin (SST), Chromagranin A (CHGA), the transcription factors NKX6.1, PDX1, PAX6, NKX2.2, NEUROD1, and ISL1 on sections of d19-21 clusters generated using the disclosed method. FIG. 25E: Static Glucose Stimulated Insulin Secretion (sGSIS) at d19. FIG. 25F: Flow-based analysis of d20 differentiation shows up to 75% c-peptide positive pancreatic beta cells. FIG. 25G: Transmission electron microscopy image of d19 cells exhibits prominent mature Insulin vesicles. FIG. 25H: Static Glucose Stimulated Insulin Secretion (sGSIS) of sorted and re-aggregated pancreatic beta cells. FIG. 25I: ELISA analysis for human C-peptide in serum of mice transplanted with d19-20 clusters after 1 week. Values shown are after an overnight fast and 30 minutes post i.p. Glucose bolus.

FIG. 26. Schematic illustration of transplantation experiments highlighting the importance of physiological oxygen tension (about 5%) during differentiation. (iv) Transplantation of pancreatic beta cells generated under ambient oxygen conditions resulted in the loss of critical markers in many cells. Some pancreatic beta cells, however, maintain their phenotype and function immediately. (v) and (vi) Differentiation under physiological oxygen levels, either starting at progenitor (v) or pluripotent stage (vi) results in the generation or production of pancreatic beta cells in vitro. These pancreatic beta cells are more resilient to stress caused by transplantation and most cells function immediately, representing a key advance over current cell therapy approaches.

FIGS. 27A-27D: Beta cells can be efficiently produced under physiological oxygen levels and exhibit reduced death upon exposure to hypoxia. FIG. 27A: Differentiating cell clusters were transferred at day 10 or 11 from an ambient to physiological oxygen atmosphere. FIG. 27B: Micrographs of clusters generated at physiological oxygen concentrations at day 20 under light microscopy (left picture) or fluorescent microscopy showing prominent GFP expression (right picture). FIG. 27C: Representative flow-based analysis of hormones glucagon and insulin (detected by human C-peptide staining) at day 20 and quantification of human C-peptide-positive cells of total cells and glucagon-expressing cells of C-peptide cells. n=3 independent experiments. FIG. 27D: Differentiated clusters containing beta cells generated at either ambient or physiological oxygen levels were transferred to control (20% O₂) or hypoxic (1% O₂) culture conditions and dead cells were assayed at indicated time points.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Methods and compositions described herein provide populations of pancreatic beta cells. Such cells are useful for treatment of diabetes.

The pancreatic beta cells can be generated using the methods and compositions described herein. For example, by differentiation of less differentiated cells, such as by differentiation of stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, and progenitor cells that are of the endodermal of pancreatic lineage. In some cases, the pancreatic beta cells can be generated from adult cells that have been directly converted into the endodermal or pancreatic lineage by procedures described herein (see also PCT/US2014/048358, filed Jul. 25, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety).

Pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells can then be differentiated into pancreatic beta cells by contact with a composition that includes heparin, zinc salts, a TGF-β(3 inhibitor (e.g., Alk5 inhibitor), a BMP4 signaling inhibitor (e.g., LDN-193189), a T3 thyroid hormone, cysteine, an anti-oxidant (e.g., vitamin E or a derivative thereof such as 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid), an Axl kinase inhibitor (e.g., R428), a Notch Signaling Inhibitor (e.g., Compound E), a Ca²⁺ channel agonist (e.g. BayK-8644), vitamin C, and combinations thereof to generate populations of partially or fully differentiated pancreatic beta-like cells. These cells can then be cultured to generate 3D) aggregates that are useful for transplantation.

To obtain definitive endoderm cells that can be differentiated into pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells, differentiated cells can be re-directed from an established lineage to the endoderm lineage. The definitive endoderm cells generated as described herein express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus1, CXCR4, or a combination thereof. Compositions and procedures for such preparation of definitive endoderm cells are described herein. For example, embryonic or adult fibroblasts can be redirected into the endoderm lineage to form definitive endoderm cells by inducing expression of pluripotency factors at the same time as the embryonic fibroblasts are mixed with a first composition containing a TGFβ family member such as Activin A and a WNT activator such as CHIR99021 and/or lithium chloride. The yield of definitive endoderm cells can be increased by including growth factors (e.g., epidermal growth factor (EGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), or a combination thereof), phospho-L-ascorbic acid, a histone deacetylase inhibitor (e.g., Na butyrate), a histone demethylase inhibitor (e.g., parnate), a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor (e.g., RG108), an adenosine agonist (e.g., 5′-N-ethylcarbox-amido-adenosine (NECA)), and/or a G9a histone methyl-transferase inhibitor in the first composition (e.g., in the culture medium).

Pancreatic progenitor cells can be obtained from definitive endoderm cells by contacting or mixing the definitive endoderm cells with a second composition. For example, pancreatic progenitor cells can be obtained from definitive endoderm cells by contacting or mixing the definitive endoderm cells with a second composition that includes a TGFβ receptor inhibitor, a hedgehog pathway inhibitor, a retinoic acid receptor agonist, or a combination thereof. The yield of pancreatic progenitor cells can be increased by including a WNT activator, 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid, a Notch signaling inhibitor, a BMP4 signaling inhibitor, growth factors (e.g., epidermal growth factor (EGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), fibroblast growth factor 7 (FGF7), fibroblast growth factor 10 (FGF10), or a combination thereof).

An example of a process for obtaining definitive endoderm cells and pancreatic precursor cells is outlined in FIG. 4A and in Table 1, shown below.

TABLE 1 Stage* Stages I & II Stage III Stage IV Days 0-12 Days 12-16 Days 16-25 Definitive Pancreatic Functional Endodermal Cells Progenitor Cells Pancreatic that Express that Express Beta-Like Cells Sox17 & Foxa2 Pdx1 & Nkx6.1 that Express (Cer & Cxcr4) (Hnf6 & Pax6) glucagon & insulin Factor Add laminin, nicotinamide, B27, etc. (per Approach 1 Approach 2 Schroeder 2006) TGFβ family 6 days 6 days member pluripotency Activin A + factors, then pluripotency 6 days of factors, then Activin A 6 days of Activin A WNT 6 days With activator pluripotency pluripotency factors, then factors 6 days of 6 days, then LiCl 6 days of LiCl RAR Add retinoic Agonist acid at day 12 for 1 day or when Sox17 & Foxa2 expressed TGFβ Add A83-01 at receptor day 12 for 1 day, Inhibitor or when Sox17 & Foxa2 expressed; then add A83-01 for 3 more days Vitamin C Add Add pVc at day Add pVc Phospho-L- 12 for 1 day, or when cells ascorbic acid when Sox17 & express trisodium salt Foxa2 Pdx1 & Nkx6.1 (pVc) expressed; then day 0-12 add pVc for 3 more days Hedgehog Add LDE225 at Inhibitor day 12 for 1 day, or when Sox17 & Foxa2 expressed; then add LDE225 for 3 more days G9a histone Add Bix- methyl- 01294 transferase day 0-6 Inhibitor p38 mitogen- Add SB203580 activated when cells protein express (MAP) kinase Pdx1 & Nkx6.1 inhibitor *Stage I is induction of pluripotency, which can include contacting cells with Activin A and LiCl; but if the cells are already pluripotent (or of an appropriate stem cell type) then stage I may not be needed. See FIG. 1A.

In another example, a related procedure for obtaining definitive endoderm cells and pancreatic precursor cells is outlined in Table 2, shown below.

TABLE 2 Generating Definitive Endodermal Generating Progenitor Cells Generating Functional from fibroblasts Pancreatic Progenitor Cells Beta-Like Cells Stage Posterior Endodermal foregut-like Endodermal Functional Conversion progenitor progenitor Beta-Like Initiation Days 7-28 cells cells Cells Days 0-7 (cDE) (cPF) (cPE) (cPB) Factor Induces expression of SOX 7, Induces Induces FOXA2, expression of expression of Induces HNF4α, FOXA2, INSULIN, PDX1, expression of HNF6, HNF6, SOX9, NKX6.1, SOX17, SOX9, PDX1 & NEUROD1, and FOXA2 and/or PDX1 NKX6.1. NKX2.2 Pluripotency 7 days factor recovery expression after inducing pluripotency factor expression Growth EGF & EGF & FGF7 & Factors bFGF bFGF FGF10 (2 days) TGFβ family Activin A member (e.g., (100 ng/ml) Activin A) WNT CHIR99021 CHIR99021 CHIR99021 activator (e.g., LiCl, CHIR-99021) RAR Retinoic Acid Agonist (2 days) TGFβ A83-01 A83-01 A83-01 receptor (2 days) (3 days) Inhibitor Vitamin C Vitamin C Hedgehog GDC-0449 Inhibitor Histone Na butyrate Na butyrate deacetylase inhibitor Histone Parnate Parnate demethylase inhibitor DNA methyl- RG108 RG108 transferase inhibitor Adenosine 5′-N- 5′-N- agonist ethylcarbox- ethylcarbox- amido- amido- adenosine adenosine (NECA) (NECA) Notch Compound E Compound E Inhibitor (2 days) (3 days) BMP4 LDN-193189 signaling (2 days) inhibitor Agonist of Extendin-4 Glucagon-like (3 days) Peptide-1 polyADP- Nicotinamide ribose (3 days) synthetase inhibitor Adenylyl Forskolin cyclase activator Gluco- Dexamethasone corticoid receptor agonist Ca²⁺ channel BayK-8644 agonist

The exact type of factors employed and the incubation times can be varied over what is exemplified in Tables 1 and 2, as is described in more detail below.

Definitive Endoderm Induction

Definitive endoderm cells can be identified by their expression of Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus1, CXCR4, or a combination thereof.

Starting Cells

Definitive endoderm cells can be obtained in several ways. The extent of differentiation of the initial cell type selected can impact what initial steps are chosen to make definitive endoderm cells. For example, if pluripotent stem cells are used as the starting cells, induction of pluripotency factors is not needed. However, if differentiated cells are employed as the starting cells, then introduction and/or induction of pluripotency factor expression facilitates conversion of the cells into definitive endoderm cells. There is no need to induce full pluripotency in the starting cells. Instead, the starting cells can be converted directly to definitive endodermal cells.

A variety of cell types can therefore be used to generate definitive endodermal cells. For example, definitive endodermal cells can be generated from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), from embryonic stem cells, from multipotent stem cells, and by manipulation of other cell types. In some instances, definitive endodermal cells can be generated by re-directing cells from one lineage to another. For example, the endodermal cells can be obtained from starting cells of epidermal lineage, hematopoietic lineage, endothelial lineage, muscle cell lineage, epithelial cell lineage, and/or neural cell lineage. Examples of starting cells that can be converted into endodermal cells include fibroblasts, epidermal cells, lymphocytes, hepatocytes, myoblasts, neurons, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, T-cells, and combinations thereof. As illustrated by experiments described herein, embryonic fibroblasts can be redirected to an endodermal lineage by the methods disclosed herein.

Starting cells for generation of definitive endoderm cells can include a selected cell population that contains nonpluripotent cells that are induced to transiently express one or more pluripotency factors such as SSEA1, SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1-60, TRA-1-81, TRA-2-49/6E, ALP, Sox2, E-cadherin, UTF-1, Oct4,Klf4, Sox2, c-Myc, a short hairpin RNA (shRNA) against p53, or a combination thereof. The selected population can include pluripotent stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), embryonic stem cells, multipotent stem cells, and combinations thereof. The selected cell population can be re-directed from one lineage to the endodermal lineage. For example, partially and/or fully differentiated cells of the epithelial cell lineage, hematopoietic lineage, endothelial cell lineage, muscle cell lineage, neural cell lineage, and combinations thereof can be re-directed to the endodermal lineage and to become pancreatic progenitor cells.

The initial starting population of cells can be a nonpluripotent cell population, for example, a cell population that does not express detectable levels of endogenous NANOG, but that is induced to transiently express pluripotency factors while being directed to the endodermal lineage.

Expression of endogenous or recombinantly introduced pluripotency factors can also be induced to facilitate redirection of a selected cell population to the endodermal lineage. For example, pluripotent expression vectors can be transfected into a selected cell population, and expression of the pluripotency factors encoded by those expression vectors can be induced. The pluripotent expression vectors can be integrated into the genomes of the cells, or the pluripotent expression vectors can be maintained episomally for the time needed to redirect the cells to the endodermal lineage. Episomal introduction and expression of pluripotency factors is desirable because the mammalian cell genome is not altered by insertion of the episomal vectors and because the episomal vectors are lost over time. Hence, use of episomal expression vectors allows expression of pluripotency factors for the short time that is needed to convert nonpluripotent mammalian cells to definitive endodermal progenitor cells, while avoiding possible chromosomal mutation and expression of pluripotency factors during later stages of differentiation into pancreatic progenitor cells and pancreatic beta cells.

Episomal plasmid vectors encoding p53 suppression factors and other pluripotency factors can be introduced into mammalian cells as described for example, in Yu et al., Human induced pluripotent stem cells free of vector and transgene sequences, Science 324(5928): 797-801 (2009); United States Patent Application 20120076762, and Okita et al., A more efficient method to generate integration free human iPS cells, NATURE METHODS 8: 409-412 (2011), the contents of which are specifically incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

For example, the pluripotency factors can be encoded within and expressed from an episomal vector that has EBNA-1 (Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen-1) and oriP, or Large T and SV40ori sequences so that the vectors can be episomally present and replicated without incorporation into a chromosome.

Cells from various lineages can be induced to a stem cell-like phenotype by procedures described by United States Patent Application Nos. 20130059385, 20120190059, 20110110899, 20100267141, 20100233804 and WO/2011/123572, the contents of which are specifically incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

The pluripotency factors can be introduced into mammalian cells in the form of DNA, protein or mature mRNA by a technique such as lipofection, binding with a cell membrane-permeable peptide, liposomal transfer/fusion, or microinjection. When in the form of DNA, a vector such as a virus, a plasmid, or an artificial chromosome can be employed. Examples of viral vectors include retrovirus vectors, lentivirus vectors (e.g., according to Takahashi, K. and Yamanaka, S., Cell, 126: 663-676 (2006); Takahashi, K. et al., Cell, 131: 861-872 (2007); Yu, J. et al., Science, 318: 1917-1920 (2007)), adenovirus vectors (e.g., Okita K, et al., Science 322: 949 (2008)), adeno-associated virus vectors, and Sendai virus vectors (Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci. 85: 348-62, 2009), the contents of each of which references are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. Also, examples of artificial chromosome vectors that can be used include human artificial chromosome (HAC), yeast artificial chromosome (YAC), and bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC and PAC) vectors. As a plasmid, a plasmid for mammalian cells can be used (e.g., Okita K, et al., Science 322: 949 (2008)). A vector can contain regulatory sequences such as a promoter, an enhancer, a ribosome binding sequence, a terminator, and a polyadenylation site, so that a pluripotency factor can be expressed. A vector may further contain, if desired, a selection marker sequence such as a drug resistant gene (e.g., a neomycin resistant gene, an ampicillin resistant gene, and a puromycin resistant gene), a thymidine kinase gene, and a diphtheria toxin gene, a reporter gene sequence such as a green fluorescent protein (GFP), β glucuronidase (GUS), FLAG, or combinations thereof. Also, the above vector may have LoxP sequences located before and after the segment encoding the pluripotency factor to permit cleavage at the ends of the pluripotency factor segment (before and after) or at both ends of the segment encoding a promoter and the pluripotency factor after introduction into the mammalian cells.

The nucleic acid segment encoding a pluripotency factor can be operably linked to a promoter. The promoter is typically selected from promoters which are functional in mammalian cells, although prokaryotic promoters and promoters functional in other eukaryotic cells may be used. The promoter can be derived from promoter sequences of viral or eukaryotic genes. For example, it may be a promoter derived from the genome of a cell in which expression is to occur. However, a heterologous promoter is often desirable. Examples of eukaryotic promoters that can be employed include those promoters that function in a ubiquitous manner (such as promoters of a-actin, b-actin, tubulin) or, alternatively, a tissue-specific manner (such as promoters of the genes for pyruvate kinase). Tissue-specific promoters can be specific for lymphocytes, dendritic cells, skin, brain cells and epithelial cells. Examples of promoters include CD2, CD11c, keratin 14, Wnt-1 and Rhodopsin promoters. An epithelial cell promoter such as SPC can be used. Viral promoters may also be used, for example the Moloney murine leukemia virus long terminal repeat (MMLV LTR) promoter, the rous sarcoma virus (RSV) LTR promoter or the human cytomegalovirus (CMV) IE promoter. The promoters employed for expression of pluripotency factors can be inducible promoters that respond to specific stimuli. An inducible promoter is a promoter that is capable of directly or indirectly activating transcription of one or more DNA sequences or genes in response to an inducer. In the absence of an inducer, the DNA sequences or genes will not be transcribed. The inducer can be a chemical agent such as a protein, metabolite, growth regulator, phenolic compound, steroid, or a physiological stress imposed directly by, for example heat, or indirectly through the action of a pathogen or disease agent such as a virus. It may be advantageous for the promoters to be inducible so that the levels of expression of the heterologous gene can be regulated during the life-time of the cell. In addition, any of these promoters may be modified by the addition of further regulatory sequences, for example enhancer sequences. Chimeric promoters may also be used comprising sequence elements from two or more different promoters described above.

There is no need to induce pluripotency to the extent that pluripotency markers such as Nanog and Rex1 are expressed. Instead, cells are exposed to or induced to express pluripotency factors to redirect the cells from their current differentiation lineage and toward the endodermal differentiation lineage.

The selected cell population is treated with Activin A and lithium chloride to generate definitive endoderm cells. Addition of phospho-L-ascorbic acid and/or a G9a histone methyl-transferase inhibitor can increase the yield of definitive endoderm cells from the selected cell population. Such treatment is for a time and at a concentration of Activin A, lithium chloride, phospho-L-ascorbic acid and/or a G9a histone methyl-transferase inhibitor that is sufficient to induce differentiation or re-direction of the selected cell population to the endoderm lineage. Further details on treatment of a selected cell population to generate definitive endoderm cells are provided below.

Growth Factors

The composition used to convert starting cells to definitive endoderm cells can contain growth factors such as epidermal growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, fibroblast growth factor (e.g., FGF7 and/or FGF10), and combinations thereof. Such growth factors can also improve conversion of definitive endoderm cells to pancreatic progenitor cells.

Epidermal growth factor can stimulate cell growth, cell proliferation, and cellular differentiation Human epidermal growth factor is a small protein (approximately 6045 daltons) with about 53 amino acids and three intramolecular disulfide bonds. Epidermal growth factor is available commercially, for example, from MP Biomedicals (see, e.g., mpbio.com), PeproTech (see, e.g., peprotech.com), and Cell Signaling Technology (see, e.g., cellsignal.com).

The fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family is comprised of at least nine polypeptides that show a variety of biological activities toward cells of mesenchymal, neuronal and epithelial origin. All FGFs have two conserved cysteine residues and share 30-50% sequence identity at the amino acid level.

Basic fibroblast growth factor can help maintain cells in an undifferentiated state. Basic fibroblast growth factor is commercially available, for example, from BD Biosciences (see, e.g., bdbiosciences.com), and EMD Millipore (see, e.g., Millipore.com).

Fibroblast growth factor 7 (FGF-7) is also called keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) and is encoded by the FGF7 gene. KGF/FGF-7 was originally isolated from the conditioned medium of a human embryonic lung fibroblast cell line as a mitogen that is specific for epithelial cells. The transcript for KGF/FGF-7 can be detected in stromal but not epithelial cells from various epithelial tissues. It has been proposed that KGF is a mesenchymal cell-derived paracrine growth factor that specifically stimulates epithelial cell growth. The KGF cDNA encodes a 194 amino acid precursor protein from which the N-terminal 31 amino acid residues are cleaved to generate the mature KGF. Human KGF exhibits species cross-reactivity and is active on mouse, monkey, and porcine cells. A high affinity receptor for KGF has been cloned and shown to be an alternatively spliced isoform of FGF R2/bek. Whereas FGF R2 binds FGF acidic and FGF basic but not KGF with high affinity, the alternately spliced KGF/FGF-7 R can bind KGF and FGF acidic with high affinity. FGF7 is commercially available from R&D Systems (see website at rndsystems.com/Products/251-KG).

Fibroblast growth factor 10 (FGF10) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FGF10 gene. The human FGF10 cDNA encodes a 208 amino acid residue protein with a hydrophobic amino-terminal signal peptide. Based on its in vitro biological activities and in vivo expression pattern, FGF10 has been proposed to play unique roles in the brain, in lung development, wound healing and limb bud formation. FGF10 is commercially available from R&D Systems (see website at rndsystems.com/product_results.aspx?m=1448 or rndsystems.com/Products/345-FG).

As illustrated herein epidermal growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, fibroblast growth factor 7, fibroblast growth factor 10, and combinations thereof can facilitate reprogramming of differentiated cells to the endodermal lineage. Experiments described herein show that addition of such growth factors to a selected population of cells during or after expression of pluripotency factors can increase the proportion and yield of cells that express endodermal markers. In particular, addition of such growth factors to starting cells induces those cells to express markers indicative of a endoderm phenotype such as Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof.

Similarly, epidermal growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, fibroblast growth factor 7, fibroblast growth factor 10, and combinations thereof can facilitate reprogramming of definitive endodermal cells to pancreatic progenitor cells. Experiments described herein show that addition of such growth factors to a definitive endodermal cells can increase the proportion and yield of cells that express pancreatic progenitor cell markers. In particular, addition of such growth factors to definitive endodermal cells induces those cells to express markers indicative of the pancreatic progenitor phenotype such as Pdx1, Nkx6.1, Pax6, Hnf6, or a combination thereof.

In some cases, a combination of two growth factors is employed in the first or second composition, such as epidermal growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor (or alternatively, for example, FGF7 and FGF10). In other cases, a combination of three growth factors, or a combination of four growth factors is employed.

For example, treatment of a selected population of cells with epidermal growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, fibroblast growth factor 7, fibroblast growth factor 10, or combinations thereof can convert or induce at least about 0.5%, or at least about 1%, or at least about 2%, or at least about 3%, or at least about 4%, or at least about 5%, or at least about 6%, or at least about 7%, or at least about 8% of cells in the selected mammalian cell population to express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof. Similarly, treatment of a definitive endodermal population of cells with epidermal growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, fibroblast growth factor 7, fibroblast growth factor 10, or combinations thereof can convert or induce at least about 0.5%, or at least about 1%, or at least about 2%, or at least about 3%, or at least about 4%, or at least about 5%, or at least about 6%, or at least about 7%, or at least about 8% of cells in the selected mammalian cell population to express Pdx1, Nkx6.1, Pax6, Hnf6, or a combination thereof.

For example, concentrations of such growth factors that are at least about 1 ng/ml, or at least about 2 ng/ml, or at least about 3 ng/ml, or at least about 5 ng/ml in a first composition are useful for converting starting cells to definitive endodermal cells. Similarly, concentrations of such growth factors of at least about 1 ng/ml, or at least about 2 ng/ml, or at least about 3 ng/ml, or at least about 5 ng/ml, or about 10 ng/ml in a second composition are useful for converting definitive endodermal cells to pancreatic progenitor cells.

To increase the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of an endoderm phenotype or pancreatic progenitor phenotype, a selected population of cells is contacted or mixed with one or more growth factors for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate or re-direct the cells to an endoderm lineage.

The time of contacting or mixing one or more growth factors with a starting population of cells to generate definitive endodermal cells can vary, for example, from about 2 days to about 20 days, or from 3 days to about 15 days, or from 4 days to about 10 days, or from 5 days to about 9 days, or from 6 days to about 8 days, or about 7 days.

The time of contacting or mixing one or more growth factors with a definitive endodermal population of cells to generate pancreatic progenitor cells can vary, for example, from about 3 days to about 130 days, or from 5 days to about 120 days, or from 7 days to about 110 days, or from 10 days to about 100 days, or from 20 days to about 95 days, or about 30 days to about 95 days.

The growth factor(s) can be added to a selected cell population during induced pluripotency and while directing the cells into the endoderm lineage.

The growth factors can be employed in the compositions and methods described herein in a variety of amounts and/or concentrations. For example, the growth factor(s) can be employed at a concentration of about 0.01 ng/ml to about 1 mg/ml, or about 0.1 ng/ml to about 300 ng/ml in a solution, or about 0.5 ng/ml to about 100 ng/ml in a solution, or about 1 ng/ml to about 50 ng/ml, or about 5 ng/ml to about 20 ng/ml in a solution, or about 10 ng/ml in a solution. In a dry formulation, the epidermal growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor can be present in amounts of about 0.01 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 0.1 mg to about 100 mg, or about 1 mg to about 10 mg.

TGFβ Family Members

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) is a protein that is involved in the control of proliferation, cellular differentiation, and other functions in most cells. It is a cytokine that has a role in immunity, cancer, bronchial asthma, heart disease, diabetes, Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, Marfan syndrome, Vascular Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, Loeys-Dietz syndrome, Parkinson's disease and AIDS. Proteins of the TGF-beta family are active as homodimers or heterodimers, with the two chains being linked by a single disulfide bond. Examples of TGF-β family members include the Activin/Inhibin subfamily, the decapentaplegic-Vg-related (DVR) related subfamily (that includes bone morphogenetic proteins and the growth differentiation factors), and the TGF-β subfamily.

Activin A is a member of the TGFβ family first identified in late 1980s as an inducer of follicle-stimulating hormone. Activin A is highly conserved in evolution and throughout the animal kingdom. It regulates a variety of biologic processes including cell proliferation, hematopoiesis, wound healing, and fibrosis. Activin A signals through the activin type I (Alk2, 4, or 7) and type II (ActRII or ActRIIB) receptors and shares with TGFβ the activation of the Smad cascade. See, Phillips et al., Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 20(2): 153-64 (2009); Werner, Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 17(3): 157-71 (2006).

As shown herein, addition of Activin A to a selected population of cells during expression of pluripotency factors increases the proportion and yield of definitive endodermal like cells generated. In particular, addition of Activin A to cells that express SSEA1, SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1-60, TRA-1-81, TRA-2-49/6E, ALP, Sox2, E-cadherin, UTF-1, Oct4, or a combination thereof, increases the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a definitive endoderm phenotype such as Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof. For example, after treatment of a selected population of cells with Activin A, at least about 5%, or at least about 10%, or at least about 15%, or at least about 20%, or at least about 22%, or at least about 23%, or at least about 24%, or at least about 25% of cells in the selected mammalian cell population express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof.

To increase the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a definitive endoderm phenotype, a selected population of cells is contacted or mixed with Activin A for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate or re-direct the cells to an endodermal lineage.

The time of contacting or mixing Activin A with the selected population of cells can vary, for example, from about 1 days to about 20 days, or from 2 days to about 18 days, or from 3 days to about 16 days, or from 4 days to about 15 days, or from 5 days to about 14 days, or from about 6 days to about 12 days.

Activin A can be added to a selected cell population during induced pluripotency and while directing the cells into the definitive endoderm lineage.

Activin A can be used at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 5 ng/ml to about 200 ng/ml, or from about 10 ng/ml to about 175 ng/ml, or from about 15 ng/ml to about 150 ng/ml, or from about 20 ng/ml to about 150 ng/ml, or from about 25 ng/ml to about 125 ng/ml, or from about 30 ng/ml to about 100 ng/ml, or from about 35 ng/ml to about 80 ng/ml, or from about 40 ng/ml to about 60 ng/ml, or about 50 ng/ml.

Activin A is available commercially from various suppliers, for example, from Invitrogen, PeproTech, StemRD, R&D Systems, and other vendors.

Nucleic acid and protein sequences for Activin A are available, for example, in the sequence database maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information. One example of a human Activin A amino acid sequence is available as accession number EAW94141.1 (GI:119614547) and provided below as SEQ ID NO:1.

  1 MPLLWLRGFL LASCWIIVRS SPTPGSEGHS AAPDCPSCAL  41 AALPKDVPNS QPEMVEAVKK HILNMLHLKK RPDVTQPVPK  61 AALLNAIRKL HVGKVGENGY VEIEDDIGRR AEMNELMEQT 121 SEIITFAESG TARKTLHFEI SKEGSDLSVV ERAEVWLFLK 161 VPKANRTRTK VTIRLFQQQK HPQGSLDTGE EAEEVGLKGE 201 RSELLLSEKV VDARKSTWHV FPVSSSIQRL LDQGKSSLDV 241 RIACEQCQES GASLVLLGKK KKKEEEGEGK KKGGGEGGAG 281 ADEEKEQSHR PFLMLQARQS EDHPHRRRRR GLECDGKVNI 321 CCKKQFFVSF KDIGWNDWII APSGYHANYC EGECPSHIAG 361 TSGSSLSFHS TVINHYRMRG HSPFANLKSC CVPTKLRPMS 401 MLYYDDGQNI IKKDIQNMIV EECGCS

WNT Activators

The WNT signaling pathway includes a series of events that occur when a WNT protein binds to a cell-surface receptor of a Frizzled receptor family member. Such events result in the activation of Dishevelled family proteins which inhibit a complex of proteins that includes axin, GSK-3, and the protein APC to degrade intracellular beta-catenin. The resulting enriched nuclear beta-catenin enhances transcription by TCF/LEF family transcription factors. A WNT activator can therefore include an agent that activates TCF/LEF-mediated transcription in a cell. WNT activators can be selected from true WNT agonists that bind and activate a Frizzled receptor family member including any and all of the WNT family proteins, an inhibitor of intracellular beta-catenin degradation, activators of TCF/LEF, and inhibitors of GSK-3.

As illustrated herein WNT activators are useful for converting starting cells to definitive endodermal cells and for converting definitive endodermal cells to pancreatic progenitor cells.

Examples of WNT activators that can be employed include one or more of the following compounds:

-   -   CHIR99021         (6-(2-(4-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-5-(4-methyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl)pyrimidin-2-ylamino)ethylamino)nicotinonitrile);     -   1-azakenpaullone         (9-Bromo-7,12-dihydro-pyrido[3′,2′:2,3]azepino[4,5-b]indol-6(5H)-one),         BIO ((2′Z,3′E)-6-Bromoindirubin-3′-oxime);     -   AR-A014418         (N-(4-Methoxybenzyl)-N′-(5-nitro-1,3-thiazol-2-yl)urea);     -   Indirubin-3′-monoxime;     -   5-Iodo-indirubin-3′-monoxime;     -   kenpaullone         (9-Bromo-7,12-dihydroindolo-[3,2-d][1]benzazepin-6(5H)-one);     -   SB-415286         (3-[(3-Chloro-4-hydroxyphenyl)amino]-4-(2-nitro-phenyl)-1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione);     -   SB-216763         (3-(2,4-Dichlorophenyl)-4-(1-methyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione);     -   Maybridge SEW00923SC (2-anilino-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole);     -   (Z)-5-(2,3-Memylenedioxyphenyl)imidazolidine-2,4-dione,     -   TWS119         (3-(6-(3-aminophenyl)-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-4-yloxy)phenol);     -   CHIR98014         (N2-(2-(4-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-5-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)pyrimidin-2-ylamino)ethyl)-5-nitropyridine-2,6-diamine);     -   SB415286         (3-(3-chloro-4-hydroxyphenylamino)-4-(2-nitrophenyl)-1H-pyrrole-2,5-dione);     -   Tideglusib (also known as NP031112, or NP-12;         1,2,4-Thiadiazolidine-3,5-dione,         2-(1-naphthalenyl)-4-(phenylmethyl));     -   LY2090314 (1H-Pyrrole-2,5-dione,         3-imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-3-yl-4-[1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-2-(1-piperidinylcarbonyl)pyrrolo[3,2,1-jk][1,4]benzodiazepin-7-yl]);     -   lithium salt (e.g., LiCl); or     -   any combination thereof.

WNT activators can also include small-interfering RNAs (siRNA, Cell Signaling) that act as GSK-inhibitors, lithium (Sigma), kenpaullone (Biomol International, Leost, Metal (2000) Eur J Biochem 267, 5983-5994), 6-Bromoindirubin-30-acetoxime (Meyer, L et al (2003) Chem Biol 10, 1255-1266), SB 216763 and SB 415286 (Sigma-Aldrich), and FRAT-family members and FRAT-derived peptides that prevent interaction of GSK-3 with axin. An overview is provided by Meijer et al, (2004) Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 25, 471-480, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. WNT activators (GSK3 inhibitors) that can be used in the compositions and methods described herein can also include those disclosed in US 20120329152 by Pera et al., which is specifically incorporated herein in its entirety.

The WNT activators can, for example, be CHIR99021, SB216763, TWS119, CHIR98014, Tideglusib, SB415286, LY2090314, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the WNT activators can be CHIR99021, whose structure is shown below.

The WNT activators can also be in the form of a salt or hydrate of any of the foregoing compounds.

To increase the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of an endodermal or pancreatic progenitor phenotype, a selected population of cells is contacted or mixed with one or more WNT activators for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate or re-direct the cells to an endodermal and/or pancreatic progenitor lineage.

The time of contacting or mixing WNT activator(s) with a starting population of cells (to generate definitive endodermal cells) can vary, for example, from about 2 days to about 50 days, or from 3 days to about 40 days, or from 4 days to about 35 days, or from 5 days to about 33 days, or from 6 days to about 30 days, or about 14 to 28 days. The time of contacting or mixing WNT activator(s) with a population of definitive endodermal cells (to generate pancreatic progenitor cells) can vary, for example, from about 3 days to about 130 days, or from 5 days to about 120 days, or from 7 days to about 110 days, or from 10 days to about 100 days, or from 20 days to about 95 days, or about 30 days to about 95 days.

WNT activators can be added to a selected starting cell population during induced pluripotency and while directing the cells into the endoderm lineage. WNT activators can also be added to a definitive endodermal cell population to be converted to pancreatic progenitor cells.

The WNT activators can be employed in the compositions and methods described herein in a variety of amounts and/or concentrations. For example, the WNT activators can be employed at a concentration of about 0.01 micromolar to about 1 millimolar in a solution, or about 0.1 micromolar to about 100 micromolar in a solution, or about 0.5 micromolar to about 10 micromolar in a solution, or about 1 micromolar to about 5 micromolar in a solution. In a dry formulation, the WNT activators can be present in amounts of about 0.01 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 1 mg to about 100 mg, or about 1 mg to about 10 mg can be present in amounts of about 0.01 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 0.1 mg to about 100 mg, or about 1 mg to about 10 mg.

Methods and assays for determining a level of WNT activation or GSK-3 inhibition are available to a skilled person and include, for example, the methods and assays described in Liao et al., Endocrinology, 145(6): 2941-2949 (2004); and in U.S. Pat. No. 8,323,919, both of which are specifically incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

Lithium

Lithium is an activator of WNT. The lithium can be in the form of a salt, where the anion includes, but is not limited to, chloride, bromide, carbonate, citrate, sulfate, or other biologically compatible monovalent anion (see, for example, US 2004/0028656 and WO 2008/055224).

As shown herein, addition of lithium salts to a selected population of cells during expression of pluripotency factors increases the proportion and yield of definitive endodermal like cells generated. In particular, addition of lithium salts to cells that express SSEA1, SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1-60, TRA-1-81, TRA-2-49/6E, ALP, Sox2, E-cadherin, UTF-1, Oct4, or a combination thereof, increases the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a definitive endoderm phenotype such as Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof. For example, after treatment of a selected population of cells with lithium salts at least about 10%, or at least about 15%, or at least about 20%, or at least about 22%, or at least about 23%, or at least about 24%, or at least about 25% of cells in the selected mammalian cell population express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof.

To increase the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a definitive endoderm phenotype, a selected population of cells is contacted or mixed with lithium salts for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate or re-direct the cells to an endoderm lineage.

The time of contacting or mixing lithium salts with the selected population of cells can vary, for example, from about 1 days to about 20 days, or from 2 days to about 18 days, or from 3 days to about 16 days, or from 4 days to about 15 days, or from 5 days to about 14 days, or from about 6 days to about 12 days.

Lithium salts can be added to a selected cell population during induced pluripotency and while directing the cells into the definitive endoderm lineage. Lithium salts can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 mM to about 10 mM, or from about 0.05 mM to about 9 mM, or from about 0.1 mM to about 8 mM, or from about 0.2 mM to about 7 mM, or from about 0.3 mM to about 6 mM, or from about 0.4 mM to about 5 mM, or from about 0.5 mM to about 3 mM, or about 1 mM.

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid and/or Phospho-L-Ascorbic Acid)

As shown herein, addition of vitamin C or phospho-L-ascorbic acid to a selected population of cells during expression of pluripotency factors increases the proportion and yield of definitive endodermal like cells generated. In particular, addition of phospho-L-ascorbic acid to cells that express SSEA1, SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1-60, TRA-1-81, TRA-2-49/6E, ALP, Sox2, E-cadherin, UTF-1, Oct4, or a combination thereof, increases the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a definitive endoderm phenotype such as Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof. For example, after treatment of a selected population of cells with vitamin C or phospho-L-ascorbic acid at least about 10%, or at least about 15%, or at least about 20%, or at least about 22%, or at least about 23%, or at least about 24%, or at least about 25% of cells in the selected mammalian cell population express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof.

Also as shown herein, addition of 2-phospho-L-ascorbic to definitive endoderm cells increases the proportion and yield of Pdx1⁺ and/or Nkx6.1⁺ pancreatic progenitor cells. For example, more than about 5%, or more than about 10%, or more than about 15%, or more than about 20%, or about 25% of the cells were Pdx1 positive and/or Nkx6.1 positive. The 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid can therefore be added to cells that already express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof.

In addition, the presence of vitamin C or phospho-L-ascorbic acid in cell culture media can improve conversion of pancreatic progenitor cells to pancreatic beta cells.

To increase the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a definitive endoderm phenotype, a pancreatic progenitor phenotype, or a pancreatic beta cell phenotypes a selected starting population of cells is contacted or mixed with vitamin C or phospho-L-ascorbic acid for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate or convert the cells to the desired phenotype.

The time of contacting or mixing vitamin C or phospho-L-ascorbic acid with the selected population of cells can vary, for example, from about 1 days to about 50 days, or from 2 days to about 45 days, or from 3 days to about 40 days, or from 4 days to about 35 days, or from 5 days to about 33 days, or from about 6 days to about 30 days, or for about 20-25 days.

Phospho-L-ascorbic acid or vitamin C can be added to a starting cell population during induced pluripotency and while directing the cells into the definitive endoderm lineage.

Phospho-L-ascorbic acid or vitamin C can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 1 μM to about 1000 μM, or from about 10 μM to about 700 μM, or from about 20 μM to about 500 μM, or from about 30 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 40 μM to about 350 μM, or from about 45 μM to about 300 μM, or from about 50 μM to about 310 μM, or about 280 μM.

To increase the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a pancreatic progenitor cell phenotype, a selected population of definitive endoderm cells is contacted or mixed with 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid or vitamin C for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate at least some of the cells into pancreatic progenitor cells.

The time of contacting or mixing phospho-L-ascorbic acid or vitamin C with the definitive endoderm cells or pancreatic progenitor cells can vary, for example, from about 1 days to about 50 days, or from 2 days to about 45 days, or from 3 days to about 40 days, or from 4 days to about 35 days, or from 5 days to about 33 days, or from about 6 days to about 30 days, or for about 20-25 days.

Phospho-L-ascorbic acid and/or vitamin C can be added to definitive endoderm cells while directing those cells to differentiate into pancreatic progenitor cells. Phospho-L-ascorbic acid or vitamin C can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 1 μM to about 1000 μM, or from about 20 μM to about 700 μM, or from about 50 μM to about 500 μM, or from about 100 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 150 μM to about 350 μM, or from about 200 μM to about 325 μM, or from about 250 μM to about 310 μM, or about 280 μM.

Phospho-L-ascorbic acid and/or vitamin C can be added to pancreatic progenitor cells while directing those cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells. Phospho-L-ascorbic acid or vitamin C can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 1 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 10 μM to about 80 μM, or from about 25 μM to about 75 μM, or from about 30 μM to about 70 μM, or from about 35 μM to about 65 μM, or from about 40 μM to about 60 μM, or from about 45 μM to about 55 μM, or about 50 μM.

G9a Histone Methyl-Transferase Inhibitor

The G9a histone methyltransferase enzymatically methylates histone lysines. The G9a histone methyltransferase is also named euchromatin histone methyltransferase 2 (EHMT2). Histone lysine methylation has important roles in the organization of chromatin domains and the regulation of gene expression.

As shown herein, addition of inhibitors of G9a histone methyltransferase to a selected population of cells during expression of pluripotency factors increases the proportion and yield of definitive endodermal like cells generated. In particular, addition of such inhibitors to cells that express SSEA1, SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1-60, TRA-1-81, TRA-2-49/6E, ALP, Sox2, E-cadherin, UTF-1, Oct4, or a combination thereof increases the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a definitive endoderm phenotype such as Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof. For example, after treatment of a selected population of cells with inhibitors of G9a histone methyltransferase at least about 10%, or at least about 15%, or at least about 20%, or at least about 22%, or at least about 23%, or at least about 24%, or at least about 25% of cells in the selected mammalian cell population express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof.

To increase the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a definitive endoderm phenotype, a selected population of cells is contacted or mixed with an inhibitor of G9a histone methyltransferase for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate or redirect the cells to an endoderm lineage.

The time of contacting or mixing a G9a histone methyltransferase inhibitor with the selected population of cells can vary, for example, from about 1 days to about 15 days, or from 1 days to about 14 days, or from 2 days to about 13 days, or from 3 days to about 10 days, or from 3 days to about 9 days, or from about 4 days to about 8 days, or from about 5 days to about 7 days.

The G9a histone methyltransferase inhibitors can be added during induction of pluripotency, for example, for 2 days, or for 3 days, or for 4 days, or for 5 days, or for about 6 days while the cells are exposed to, or are induced to express, pluripotency factors.

G9a histone methyltransferase inhibitors can be used at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 0.05 μM to about 9 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 8 μM, or from about 0.2 μM to about 7 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 6 μM, or from about 0.4 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 3 μM, or about 1 μM.

A variety of G9a histone methyl-transferase inhibitors can be employed. For example, the G9a histone methyl-transferase inhibitor can be Bix-01294, chaetocin, 3-deazaneplanocin hydrochloride, UNC 0224, UNC 0638, UNC 0646, and combinations thereof. G9a histone methyl-transferase inhibitors can be obtained commercially, for example, from Tocris Bioscience (see website at tocris.com/pharmacologicalBrowser. php?ItemId=236264&Type=Inhibitors#.UdYcHeDD85s). Another type of G9a histone methyl-transferase inhibitor is BRD4770 (Yuan et al., ACS Chem. Biol. 7(7): 1152-1157 (2012)(incorporated herein by reference in its entirety).

Histone Deacetylase (HDAC) Inhibitors

Histone deacetylases (HDAC) are a class of enzymes that remove acetyl groups from an ε-N-acetyl lysine amino acid on a histone. Exemplary HDACs include those Class I HDAC: HDAC1, HDAC2, HDAC3, HDAC8; and Class II HDACs: HDAC4, HDAC5, HDAC6, HDAC7A, HDAC9, HDAC10. Type I mammalian HDACs include: HDAC1, HDAC2, HDAC3, HDAC8, and HDAC11. Type II mammalian HDACs include: HDAC4, HDAC5, HDAC6, HDAC7, HDAC9, and HDAC1.

As illustrated herein use of one or more histone deacetylase inhibitors can facilitate conversion of starting cells into the endodermal lineage. The histone deacetylase inhibitors can inhibit one or more of these histone deacetylases. In some instances the histone deacetylase inhibitors are inhibitors of HDAC1.

Inhibitors of HDACs (HDAC inhibitors) can include, for example, butyrate, small molecular weight carboxylates (e.g., less than about 250 amu), hydroxamic acids, benzamides, epoxyketones, cyclic peptides, and hybrid molecules. (See, for example, Drummond et al., Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 45: 495-528 (2005), (including specific examples therein) which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). Non-limiting examples of negative regulators of type I/II HDACs include:

-   -   Sodium butyrate, phenyl butyrate, or butyrate;     -   Suberoylanilide Hydroxamic Acid (SAHA; also called Vorinostat         and MK0683), which inhibits the activities of HDAC1 and HDAC3,         for example, with IC50 values of about 10 nM and 20 nM,         respectively;     -   BML-210 (N1-(2-aminophenyl)-N8-phenyl-octanediamide, available         from Sigma-Aldrich); in HeLa extracts, the IC50 of BML-210 for         inhibition of HDAC activity can, for example, be about 80 μM;     -   Depudecin (e.g., (−)-Depudecin;         4,5:8,9-Dianhydro-1,2,6,7,11-pentadeoxy-D-threo-D-ido-undeca-1,6-dienitol),         which can, for example, have an IC50 for HDAC1 of about 4.7 μM;     -   HC Toxin         ((6R,9S,14aR)-3,6R-dimethyl-9S-(7-((S)-oxiran-2-yl)-7-oxoheptyl)decahydropyrrolo[1,2-a][1,4,7,10]tetraazacyclododecine-1,4,7,         10-tetranone, available from Cayman Chemical); HC Toxin is a         cell-permeable, reversible inhibitor of histone deacetylases         (HDACs) (e.g., IC₅₀=30 nM);     -   Scriptaid         (N-Hydroxy-1,3-dioxo-1H-benz[de]isoquinoline-2(3H)-hexananmide);     -   Phenylbutyrate (e.g., sodium phenylbutyrate), Sodium Butyrate,         pivaloyloxymethyl butyrate (Pivanex, AN-9);     -   Valproic Acid ((VPA) and other short chain fatty acids),     -   Suramin (e.g., Suramin Sodium);     -   Trichostatin A (TSA;         (R,2E,4E)-6-(4-(dimethylamino)benzoyl)-N-hydroxy-4-methylhepta-2,4-dienamide),         for example, with an IC50 of about 1.8 nM;     -   APHA Compound 8         (3-(1-Methyl-4-phenylacetyl-1H-2-pyrrolyl)-N-hydroxy-2-propenamide),         which is HDAC class I-selective;     -   Apicidin         (Cyclo[(2S)-2-Amino-8-oxodecanoyl-1-methoxy-L-tryptophyl-L-isoleucyl-(2R)-2-piperidine-carbonyl]),         which is a potent histone deacetylase with, for example, an         IC50=0.7 nM;     -   Trapoxin B         (3,6-dibenzyl-9-[6-(oxiran-2-yl)-6-oxohexyl]-1,4,7,10-tetrazabicyclo[10.3.0]pentadecane-2,5,8,11-tetrone),         an HDAC1 inhibitor with, for example, an IC50 of about 0.1 nM;     -   Chlamydocin         ((3R)-3-benzyl-6,6-dimethyl-9-[6-[(2R)-oxiran-2-yl]-6-oxohexyl]-1,4,7,10-tetrazabicyclo[10.3.0]pentadecane-2,5,8,11-tetrone),         with, for example, an IC50 of about 0.15 nM;     -   Depsipeptide (also known as romidepsin, FR901228 or FK228;         (1S,4S,7Z,10S,16E,21R)-7-ethylidene-4,21-di(propan-2-yl)-2-oxa-12,13-dithia-5,8,20,23-tetrazabicyclo[8.7.6]tricos-16-ene-3,6,9,19,22-pentone);     -   CI-994 (also known as acetyldinaline or Tacedinaline;         4-acetamido-N-(2-aminophenyl)benzamide), with, for example, a Ki         of 0.05 for HDAC1;     -   MS-27-275 (also known as MS275 or entinostat;         pyridin-3-ylmethyl-N-[[(4-[(2-aminophenyl)carbamoyl]phenyl]methyl]carbamate),         with, for example, an IC50 of about 0.1-1 μM;     -   MGCD0103 (also known as Mocetinostat,         N-(2-aminophenyl)-4-[[(4-pyridin-3-ylpyrimidin-2-yl)amino]methyl]benzamide),         with, for example, an IC50 of about 0.1 μM;     -   NVP-LAQ-824 (also known as Dacinostat or LAQ824,         (E)-N-hydroxy-3-[4-[[2-hydroxyethyl-[2-(1H-indol-3-yl)ethyl]amino]methyl]phenyl]prop-2-enamide),         with, for example, an IC50 for HDAC1 of about 0.003-0.008 μM;     -   CBHA (also known as m-carboxycinnaminic acid bishydroxamic acid;         N-hydroxy-3-[(E)-3-(hydroxyamino)-3-oxoprop-1-enyl]benzamide);     -   JNJ16241199 (also known as R306465;         N-hydroxy-2-(4-(naphthalen-2-ylsulfonyl)piperazin-1-yl)pyrimidine-5-carboxamide),         a potent inhibitor of HDAC1 with, for example, IC50 values of         about 30 to 300 nM;     -   Tubacin (also known as 537049-40-4, AClO7Y2P, CHEMBL356769,         CTK8E6516, DIOX-H_003551, Y6280;         N-[4-[(2R,4R,6S)-4-[(4,5-diphenyl-1,3-oxazol-2-yl)sulfanylmethyl]-6-[4-(hydroxymethyl)phenyl]-1,3-dioxan-2-yl]phenyl]-N′-hydroxyoctanediamide),         with, for example, a Ki for HDAC1 of about 0.028 μM;     -   A-161906 (7-[4-(4-cyanophenyl)phenoxy]-heptanohydroxamic acid);     -   Proxamide (see WO2007031853A2);     -   Oxamflatin         ((E)-5-[3-(benzenesulfonamido)phenyl]-N-hydroxypent-2-en-4-ynamide);     -   3C1-UCHA (6-(3-chlorophenylureido)caproic hydroxamic acid);     -   AOE (2-amino-8-oxo-9,10-epoxydecanoic acid);     -   CHAP31         ((2S)—N′-hydroxy-N-[(2R)-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1-[[(2S,3R)-3-methyl-1-oxopentan-2-yl]amino]-1-oxopropan-2-yl]-2-(pyrrolidine-2-carbonylamino)octanediamide);         or     -   any combination thereof.         See WO2007031853A2, which is incorporated by reference herein in         its entirety, for structures of many of these HDAC inhibitors.

Other inhibitors include, for example, dominant negative forms of the HDACs (e.g., catalytically inactive forms), siRNA inhibitors of the HDACs, and antibodies that specifically bind to the HDACs. Inhibitors are available, e.g., from BIOMOL International, Fukasawa, Merck Biosciences, Novartis, Gloucester Pharmaceuticals, Aton Pharma, Titan Pharmaceuticals, Schering AG, Pharmion, MethylGene, and Sigma Aldrich.

In some embodiments the HDAC inhibitor(s) can include sodium butyrate.

The time of contacting or mixing HDAC inhibitor(s) with the selected population of cells can vary, for example, from about 2 days to about 50 days, or from 3 days to about 40 days, or from 4 days to about 35 days, or from 5 days to about 33 days, or from 6 days to about 30 days, or about 21-28 days.

The HDAC inhibitor(s) can be added to a selected cell population during induced pluripotency and while directing the cells into the endoderm lineage.

The HDAC inhibitor can be employed in the compositions and methods described herein in a variety of amounts and/or concentrations. For example, the HDAC inhibitor can be employed at a concentration of about 1 micromolar to about 20 millimolar, or about 10 micromolar to about 15 millimolar, or about 25 micromolar to about 5 millimolar, or about 40 micromolar to about 1 millimolar, or about 60 micromolar to about 0.5 millimolar, or about 0.1 millimolar in a solution. In a dry formulation, the HDAC inhibitor can be present in amounts of about 0.01 mg to about 100 mg, or about 0.05 mg to about 50 mg, or about 0.1 mg to about 25 mg, or about 1 mg to about 8 mg. For example, entinostat (MS275) has been administered during clinical trials at dosages of about 4-5 mg/m² (Pili et al., Br J Cancer 106(1): 77-84 (2012)), where mg/m² is mg per body surface area of patient. The adult average body surface is about 2.2 m² and formulae are available converting height and weight into body surface area.

Histone Demethylase Inhibitors

Histone demethylases remove methyl groups from histone. The lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1, also called KDM1, AOF2, or BHC110) is a histone demethylase that suppresses gene expression by converting di-methylated lysines on histone H3 to monomethylated and unmethylated lysines. Histone methylation can influence epigenetic patterns of gene expression due to association with active promoters. As illustrated herein use of one or more inhibitors of histone demethylase enzymes can facilitate conversion of differentiated cells into the endodermal lineage.

Exemplary inhibitors of histone demethylase include, but are not limited to, parnate (also called tranylcypromine sulfate) or an equivalent salt of parnate, and phenelzine (Nardil, 2-phenylethylhydrazine). See, also, Huang et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 104(19): 8023-8028 (2007); Bi, X. et al., Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 16:3229-3232 (2006); International Patent Application Nos. WO2007/021839 and WO2008/127734. MAO inhibitors can also serve as epigenetic modulators.

In some embodiments, the histone demethylase inhibitor is parnate

The time of contacting or mixing histone demethylase inhibitor(s) with the selected population of cells can vary, for example, from about 2 days to about 50 days, or from 3 days to about 40 days, or from 4 days to about 35 days, or from 5 days to about 33 days, or from 6 days to about 30 days, or about 21-28 days.

The histone demethylase inhibitor(s) can be added to a selected cell population during induced pluripotency and while directing the cells into the endoderm lineage.

The histone demethylase inhibitor can be employed in the compositions and methods described herein in a variety of amounts and/or concentrations. For example, the histone demethylase inhibitor can be employed at a concentration of about 0.01 micromolar to about 20 micromolar, or about 0.05 micromolar to about 10 micromolar, or about 0.1 micromolar to about 5 micromolar, or about 0.5 micromolar to about 3 micromolar, or about 1 micromolar to about 3 micromolar, or about 1 micromolar in a solution. In a dry formulation, the lysine-specific demethylase 1 inhibitor can be present in amounts of about 0.01 mg to about 100 mg, or about 0.05 mg to about 50 mg, or about 0.1 mg to about 25 mg, or about 1 mg to about 8 mg.

DNA Methyltransferase (DNMT) Inhibitors

DNA methyltransferases are enzymes that transfer methyl groups to DNA. Inhibitors of DNA methyltransferases can reactivate the expression of genes that have been repressed by DNA methylation. As illustrated herein, DNA methyltransferase inhibitors can improve the conversion of starting cells to definitive endodermal cells.

Exemplary DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) inhibitors can include antibodies that bind to DNA methyltransferases, dominant negative variants of DNA methyltransferases, and siRNA and antisense nucleic acids that suppress expression of DNMT. DNA methyltransferase inhibitors include, but are not limited to, RG108 (available, e.g., from Sigma-Aldrich), 5-aza-C (5-azacitidine or azacitidine) (see, e.g., Schermelleh, et al., Nature Methods 2:751-6 (2005)), 5-aza-T-deoxycytidine (5-aza-CdR) (see, e.g., Zhu, Clinical Medicinal Chemistry 3(3):187-199 (2003)), decitabine (see, e.g., Gore, Nature Clinical Practice Oncology 2:S30-S35 (2005)), doxorubicin (see, e.g., Levenson, Molecular Pharmacology 71:635-637 (2007)), EGCG ((−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate) (see, e.g., Fang, et al., Cancer Research 63:7563-7570 (2003)), RG108 (see, e.g., Carninci, et al., WO2008/126932, incorporated herein by reference) and zebularine (see, Carninci, supra).

In some embodiments, the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor is RG108, which has the following structure.

The time of contacting or mixing DNA methyltransferase inhibitor(s) with the selected population of cells can vary, for example, from about 2 days to about 50 days, or from 3 days to about 40 days, or from 4 days to about 35 days, or from 5 days to about 33 days, or from 6 days to about 30 days, or about 7-28 days.

The DNA methyltransferase inhibitor(s) can be added to a selected starting cell population during induced pluripotency and while directing the cells into the endoderm lineage. The DNA methyltransferase inhibitor can be employed in the compositions and methods described herein in a variety of amounts and/or concentrations. For example, the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor can be employed at a concentration of about 0.01 micromolar to about 20 micromolar, or about 0.03 micromolar to about 10 micromolar, or about 0.05 micromolar to about 5 micromolar, or about 0.1 micromolar to about 2 micromolar, or about 0.2 micromolar to about 1 micromolar, or about 0.5 micromolar in a solution. In a dry formulation, the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor can be present in amounts of about 0.01 mg to about 100 mg, or about 0.05 mg to about 50 mg, or about 0.1 mg to about 25 mg, or about 1 mg to about 8 mg.

Adenosine Receptor Agonists

Adenosine receptor agonists bind to and/or activate adenosine receptors. Adenosine receptor agonists can activate any, two or more, or all of the adenosine receptor subtypes, including A₁, A_(2a), A_(2b), and A₃ adenosine receptors. Various adenosine receptor subtypes and agonists are described in the scientific literature, including, e.g., Muller C E, “Medicinal chemistry of adenosine A3 receptor ligands,” Curr Top Med Chem. 3(4):445-62, 2003; Cristalli G et al., “Medicinal chemistry of adenosine A2A receptor agonists,” Curr Top Med Chem. 3(4):387-401, 2003; Gao Z G, et al., “Partial agonists for A(3) adenosine receptors,” Curr Top Med Chem. 4(8):855-62, 2004; Zablocki J A et al., “Partial A(1) adenosine receptor agonists from a molecular perspective and their potential use as chronic ventricular rate control agents during atrial fibrillation (AF),” Curr Top Med Chem. 4(8):839-54, 2004; Dalpiaz A et al., “Adenosine A(1) receptor: analysis of the potential therapeutic effects obtained by its activation in the central nervous system,” Curr Med Chem. 9(21):1923-37, 2002 November; Cristalli G et al., “Medicinal chemistry of adenosine A2A receptor agonists,” Curr Top Med Chem. 3(4):387-401, 2003; Gao Z G et al., “Allosteric modulation of the adenosine family of receptors,” Mini Rev Med Chem. 5(6):545-53, 2005 June; Headrick J P et al., “A3 adenosine receptor-mediated protection of the ischemic heart,” Vascul Pharmacol. 42(5-6):271-9, 2005 April-May, Epub 2005 Apr. 19; Hutchinson S A et al., “A(1) adenosine receptor agonists: medicinal chemistry and therapeutic potential,” Curr Pharm Des. 10(17):2021-39, 2004; Cerqueira M D, “The future of pharmacologic stress: selective A2A adenosine receptor agonists,” Am J Cardiol. 94(2A):33D-40D, 2004 Jul. 22, discussion 40D-42D; Lukashev D et al., “Targeting hypoxia—A(2A) adenosine receptor-mediated mechanisms of tissue protection,” Drug Discov Today. 9(9):403-9, 2004 May 1; Yan L et al., “Adenosine receptor agonists: from basic medicinal chemistry to clinical development, “Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 8(2):537-76, 2003 November; Sullivan G W, “Adenosine A2A receptor agonists as anti-inflammatory agents,” Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 4(11):1313-9, 2003 November; Jacobson K A et al., “Adenosine receptors as therapeutic targets, Nat Rev Drug Discov. 5(3):247-64, 2006 March; Gross, G. J. and Auchampach, J. A. “Reperfusion injury: Does it exist?” J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. (2006), 42: 12; Baraldi, P. G. et al., “Ligands for A2B adenosine receptor subtype” Curr. Med. Chem. (2006) 13:3467; Yuzlenko, O.; Kiec-Kononowicz, K. “Potent adenosine A1 and A2A receptors antagonists: Recent developments.” Curr. Med. Chem. (2006), 13:3609, Cronstein, B. N. Adenosine receptors and wound healing, revised,” The Scientific World Journal (2006) 6:984; Akkari, R. et al., “Recent progress in the development of Adenosine receptor ligands anti-inflammatory drugs,” Curr. Top. Med. Chem. (2006) 6:1375; Vallon, V. et al., “Adenosine and kidney function,” Physiol. Rev. (2006) 86:901; Bours, M. J. L., et al., “Adenosine 5′-triphosphate and adenosine as endogenous signaling molecules in immunity and inflammation,” Pharmacol. Ther. (2006) 112:358, the contents of which are specifically incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

A variety of adenosine receptor agonists can be used in the methods and compositions described herein. For example, as illustrated herein 5′-N-ethylcarbox-amido-adenosine (NECA) can improve the conversion of starting cells to definitive endodermal cells. The structure of NECA is shown below.

Other adenosine receptor agonists that can be employed include the following.

The 8-butylamino-adenosine compound is a partial agonist for the adenosine A₁ receptor. Prototypical A₂ agonists include 2-[p-(2-carboxyethyl)phenethyl-amino]-5′-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (CGS-2 1680) and HENECA. Another example of a NECA-modified adenosine analog is 4-(3-[6-amino-9-(5-ethylcarbamoyl-3,4-dihydroxy-tetrahydro-furan-2-yl)-9H-purin-2-yl]-prop-2-ynyl)-cyclohexanecarboxylic acid methyl ester) from Adenosine Therapeutics. Agonists selective for the A₁ adenosine receptor subtype include, but are not limited to, N⁶-cyclopentyladenosine (CPA), 2-chloro-N⁶-cyclopentyl-adenosine (CCPA), (2S)—N6-[2-endo-Norbornyl]adenosine ((S)-ENBA), N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-[4-[[2-[4-[[9-[(2R,3R,4S,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)oxolan-2-yl]purin-6-yl]amino]phenyl]acetyl]amino]phenyl]acetamide hydrate (ADAC), AMP579, NNC-21-0136, GR79236, CVT-510 (Tecadenoson), SDZ WAG 994, and Selodenoson.

Agonists selective for the A_(2A) adenosine receptor subtype include, but are not limited to, NECA, CGS21680, DPMA, Binodenoson, ATL-146e, and CV-3146. Agonists selective for the A_(2B) adenosine receptor subtype include, but are not limited to, LUF5835.

Agonists selective for the A₃ adenosine receptor subtype include, but are not limited to, IB-MECA, Cl-IB-MECA, LJ568, CP-608039, MRS3558, and MRS1898. In various embodiments, the agonist is AmP579, a mixed adenosine agonist with both A₁ and A₂ effects (Rhone-Poulenc Rorer, Collegeville, Pa.). The analog may also be DPMA, a selective adenosine A₂ receptor agonist, CPA, a selective adenosine A₁ receptor agonist, Benzyl-NECA, a selective A₃ receptor agonist, 2-chloroadenosine, a non-selective A₂/A₁ agonist, or NECA, a non-selective A₂/A₁ agonist.

The time of contacting or mixing adenosine receptor agonists with the selected population of cells can vary, for example, from about 2 days to about 50 days, or from 3 days to about 40 days, or from 4 days to about 35 days, or from 5 days to about 33 days, or from 6 days to about 30 days, or from about 7 to about 28 days, or from about 14 to about 21 days.

The adenosine receptor agonists can be added to a selected starting cell population during induced pluripotency and while directing the cells into the endoderm lineage. The adenosine receptor agonists can be employed in the compositions and methods described herein in a variety of amounts and/or concentrations. For example, the adenosine receptor agonists can be employed at a concentration of about 0.01 micromolar to about 20 micromolar, or about 0.03 micromolar to about 10 micromolar, or about 0.05 micromolar to about 5 micromolar, or about 0.1 micromolar to about 2 micromolar, or about 0.2 micromolar to about 1 micromolar, or about 0.5 micromolar in a solution. In a dry formulation, the adenosine receptor agonists can be present in amounts of about 0.01 mg to about 100 mg, or about 0.05 mg to about 50 mg, or about 0.1 mg to about 25 mg, or about 1 mg to about 8 mg.

Expansion of Endodermal Cells

Endodermal cells can be expanded by culturing the cells in a medium containing an activator of WNT signaling and an inhibitor of TGFβ signaling. The WNT activator and the TGFβ signaling inhibitor can be any of those listed above. One example of a useful WNT activator for expansion is CHIR99021. An example of a TGFβ signaling inhibitor useful for cellular expansion is A83-01. Addition of two growth factors (e.g., EGF and bFGF) can improve the expansion and serial passage of the definitive endodermal cells. The cells proliferate rapidly with an average doubling time of 2 days. After 15 passages an increase in cell number was obtained of at least a trillion-fold.

The expanded cells maintained their epithelial colony morphology and had a posterior foregut-like phenotype as determined by immunofluorescence staining for SOX17, FOXA2, HNF4α, HNF6, and SOX9. Following gastrulation, definitive endoderm migrates to form the primitive gut, which initially consists of a single flattened sheet of cells surrounded by mesoderm. Simultaneously, as migration is occurring, the primitive gut is becoming regionalized along the dorsal-ventral and anterior-posterior axes into foregut, midgut, and hindgut domains. The foregut region gives rise to many of the major organ systems such as the liver, thyroid, lungs, the upper airways, the biliary system, stomach, and pancreas. Hence, a posterior foregut-like phenotype is indicative of cells that can give rise to pancreatic progenitor cells.

When the methods and compositions described herein are employed, high levels of expression of multiple posterior foregut progenitor gene transcripts are detected in expanded posterior foregut-like cells, including SOX17, FOXA2, HNF1A, HNF1B, HNF4A, HNF6, SOX9 and PDX1, as compared to parental fibroblasts. In contrast, ectodermal marker gene SOX1, mesodermal marker gene BRACHYURY, and pluripotency marker genes OCT4 and NANOG were not induced. Notably, the episomal vectors were undetectable by qPCR assays in established posterior foregut-like cells (abbreviated as cPF cells).

Transplantation of expanded cPF cells under the kidney capsule of immune deficient mice did not result in any tumor formation even after prolonged periods of up to 12 weeks in vivo. Analysis of the cPF grafts demonstrated epithelial structures expressing different endoderm-specific markers, including E-cadherin, HNF4α, PDX1, SOX9, and pan-cytokeratin. Thus, the cPF cells can be greatly expanded in culture while maintaining their posterior foregut endodermal phenotype.

The cPF cells can be differentiated into more committed pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells using the methods described below.

For example, the cPF cells can first be cultured in the presence of growth factors, an inhibitor of TGFβ, an inhibitor of Notch signaling, a retinoic acid receptor agonist, a hedgehog antagonist, an inhibitor of BMP4 signaling, and combinations thereof for several days. The cPF cells can be cultured in the presence of these agents for about 1 to 10 days, or about 2 to 5 days, or about 2 to 4 days. The growth factors employed can be FGF7 and FGF10. The inhibitor of TGFβ can be A83-01. The inhibitor of Notch signaling can be Compound-E. The hedgehog antagonist can be GDC-0449, and the inhibitor of BMP4 signaling can be LDN-193189.

In a second step, the differentiating cells can be cultured for several more days, for example, in the presence of different growth factors (e.g., EGF), an agonist of glucagon-like peptide-1 (e.g., Extendin-4), an inhibitor of TGFβ (e.g., A83-01), an inhibitor of BMP4 signaling (e.g., LDN-193189), an activator of protein kinase C (e.g., phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate), an inhibitor of Notch signaling (e.g., Compound-E), an inhibitor of polyADP-ribose synthetase (e.g. nicotinamide), and combinations thereof. For example, the differentiating cells can be cultured in the presence of these agents for about 1 to 10 days, or about 2 to 5 days, or about 2 to 4 days.

The resulting pancreatic progenitor cells express FOXA2, HNF6, SOX9, and PDX1, NKX6.1, or combinations thereof.

Further details on generating pancreatic progenitor cells are described below.

Pancreatic Progenitor Cells

Pancreatic progenitor cells can be identified by their expression of Pdx1, Nkx6.1, Pax6, Hnf6, FoxA2, Sox9, or a combination thereof. Pancreatic progenitor cells can be obtained from the definitive endoderm cells and/or posterior foregut-like cells generated as described herein. The conversion to pancreatic progenitor cells can involve contacting or mixing the cells with a second composition. For example, pancreatic progenitor cells can be obtained from definitive endoderm cells by contacting or mixing the definitive endoderm cells with a second composition that includes a TGFβ receptor inhibitor, a hedgehog pathway inhibitor, a retinoic acid receptor agonist, or a combination thereof. The yield of pancreatic progenitor cells can be increased by including a WNT activator, 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid, a Notch signaling inhibitor, a BMP4 signaling inhibitor, an activator of protein kinase C, growth factors (e.g., epidermal growth factor (EGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), fibroblast growth factor 7 (FGF7), fibroblast growth factor 10 (FGF10), or a combination thereof).

Starting Cells for Generating Pancreatic Progenitor Cells

Pancreatic progenitor cells can be obtained from definitive endoderm cells, for example, cells that express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof. Pancreatic progenitor cells can also be obtained from posterior foregut-like cells, which express Sox17, Foxa2, Hnf4a, Sox9, or a combination thereof.

The starting cells are treated with a TGFβ receptor inhibitor, a hedgehog pathway inhibitor, a retinoic acid receptor agonist, 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid, an inhibitor of Notch signaling, an inhibitor of BMP4 signaling, one or more growth factors, or a combination thereof, to generate pancreatic progenitor cells. Additional factors that can improve conversion to pancreatic progenitor cells include an agonist of glucagon-like peptide-1, an inhibitor of BMP4 signaling, an activator of protein kinase C, an inhibitor of polyADP-ribose synthetase, and combinations thereof. Several of these factors and details for use of these factors are described above in the section describing conversion of starting cells to definitive endodermal cells. Other factors and more details for converting definitive endoderm cells to pancreatic progenitor cells are described below.

Retinoic Acid Receptor Agonists

As shown herein, addition of retinoic acid receptor agonists (without addition of any growth factors) to definitive endoderm cells increases the proportion and yield of Pdx1⁺ and/or Nkx6.1⁺ pancreatic progenitor cells. For example, more than about 5%, or more than about 10%, or more than about 15%, or more than about 20%, or about 25% of the cells were Pdx1 positive and/or Nkx6.1 positive.

The retinoic acid receptor agonists can be added to cells that express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof.

To increase the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a pancreatic progenitor cell phenotype, a selected population of cells (e.g., definitive endoderm cells) is contacted or mixed with a retinoic acid receptor agonist for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate at least some of the cells into pancreatic progenitor cells.

The time of contacting or mixing a retinoic acid receptor agonist with the selected population of cells can vary, for example, from about 0.5 days to about 12 days, or from 1 days to about 10 days, or from 1.5 days to about 8 days, or from 2 days to about 7 days, or from 2.5 days to about 6 days, or from about 3 days to about 5 days, or about 4 days.

Retinoic acid receptor agonists can be used at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 0.05 μM to about 9 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 8 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 7 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 6 μM, or from about 0.75 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 3 μM, or about 2 μM.

A variety of retinoic acid receptor agonists can be employed. Examples of retinoic acid receptor agonists include, for example, retinoic acid. The retinoic acid receptor agonists can be a naturally-occurring retinoid, or chemically synthesized retinoid, a retinoic acid receptor agonist compound free of retinoid skeleton, or a naturally-occurring substance having a retinoic acid receptor agonist activity. Examples of the natural retinoid having a RAR agonist activity include retinoic acid (stereoisomers of all-trans retinoic acid (all-trans RA) and 9-cis-retinoic acid (9-cis RA) are known). A chemically synthesized retinoid is known in this field (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,234,926, and 4,326,055). Examples of the retinoic acid receptor agonist compound free of retinoid skeleton include Am80, AM580, TTNPB and AC55649. Examples of a naturally-occurring substance having a retinoic acid receptor agonist activity includes honokiol and magnolol (Annual Report of Research Institute for Biological Function 9:55-61, 2009). The RAR agonist to be used in this step is preferably retinoic acid, AM580 (4-[[5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5,5,8,8-tetramethyl-2-naphthalenyl]carboxamide]benzoic acid), TTNPB (4-[[E]-2-[5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-5,5,8,8-tetramethyl-2-naphthalenyl]-1-propenyl]benzoic acid), AC55649 (4′-octyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-carboxylic acid), more preferably retinoic acid. While the concentration of an RAR agonist in the medium is appropriately determined according to the kind of the RAR agonist to be used, the concentration of retinoic acid when used as a RAR agonist is generally 0.1-100 μM, preferably 0.5-10 μM. The concentration of TTNPB when used as an RAR agonist is generally 0.02-20 μM, preferably 0.05-10 μM. The concentration of AM580 when used as an RAR agonist is generally 0.02-20 μM, preferably 0.05-10 μM. The concentration of AC55649 when used as an RAR agonist is generally 0.02-20 μM, preferably 0.1-10 μM.

TGFβ Receptor Inhibitors

TGFβ receptor is a serine/threonine kinase receptor. The transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) signaling pathway is involved in many cellular processes in both the adult organism and in the developing embryo including cell growth, cell differentiation, apoptosis, cellular homeostasis and other cellular functions. In spite of the wide range of cellular processes that the TGFβ signaling pathway regulates, the process is relatively simple. TGFβ superfamily ligands bind to a type II receptor, which recruits and phosphorylates a type I receptor. The type I receptor then phosphorylates receptor-regulated SMADs (R-SMADs) which can now bind the coSMAD SMAD4. R-SMAD/coSMAD complexes accumulate in the nucleus where they act as transcription factors and participate in the regulation of target gene expression. The TGFβ receptor inhibitor also includes TGFβ receptor antagonists.

As shown herein, addition of inhibitors of TGFβ receptors (without addition of any growth factors) to definitive endoderm cells increases the proportion and yield of Pdx1 and/or Nkx6.1⁺ pancreatic progenitor cells. For example, more than about 5%, or more than about 10%, or more than about 15%, or more than about 20%, or about 25% of the cells were Pdx1 positive and/or Nkx6.1 positive.

Also as shown herein, addition of inhibitors of TGFβ receptors (without addition of any growth factors) to pancreatic progenitor cells can improve the conversion of such cells to pancreatic beta cells. For example, more than about 0.1%, or more than about 0.2%, or more than about 0.5%, or more than about 1%, or about 2% of the cells, or more than about 5%, or more than about 7% of cells treated with such inhibitors of TGFβ receptors were positive for C-peptide and/or insulin production.

The TGFβ receptor inhibitors can be added to cells that express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof. The TGFβ receptor inhibitors can be added to cells that express Pdx1 and/or Nkx6.1.

To increase the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a pancreatic progenitor cell phenotype or a mature pancreatic beta cell phenotype, a selected population of cells (e.g., definitive endoderm cells or pancreatic progenitor cells) is contacted or mixed with an inhibitor of TGFβ receptors for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate at least some of the cells into pancreatic progenitor cells, or pancreatic beta cells, respectively.

Examples of TGF-β inhibitors include, but are not limited to:

-   -   3-(6-Methyl-2-pyridinyl)-N-phenyl-4-(4-quinolinyl)-1H-pyrazole-1-carbothioamide         (also known as A83-01, and available from Tocris Bioscience),         which is a TGFβ kinase/Activin receptor like kinase (ALK5)         inhibitor that blocks the phosphorylation of Smad2 and inhibits         TGFβ-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition;     -   SB431542 (also known as         4-[4-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-5-(2-pyridinyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]benzamide;         available from Tocris Bioscience), which is a potent and         selective inhibitor of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)         type I receptor Activin receptor-like kinase ALK5 (IC₅₀=94 nM),         and its relatives ALK4 and ALK7;     -   4-[4-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-5-(2-pyridinyl)-1H-imidazol-2-yl]benzamide         (also known as SB 431542 and available from Tocris Bioscience; a         potent and selective inhibitor of TGF-β type I receptor Activin         receptor-like kinase ALK5 (e.g., with IC₅₀=94 nM), and its         relatives ALK4 and ALK7);     -   2-(3-(6-methylpyridine-2-yl)-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-1,5-naphthyridine         (ALK5 inhibitor or ALK5 inhibitor II) is a selective and         ATP-competitive inhibitor of the TGF-β family type I receptor         activin receptor-like kinase (ALK5). The ALK5 Inhibitor works by         preventing autophosphorylation of ALK5. It has also been shown         that ALK5 can replace Sox2 when reprogramming cells to induced         pluripotent stem (iPS) cells. Through inhibition of the TGF-β         pathway, ALK5 works to reprogram cells that have been transduced         with Oct4, Klf4, and c-M. It is a selective and ATP-competitive         inhibitor of TGF-β RI kinase (IC₅₀=23 nM, 4 nM and 18 nM for         binding, auto-phosphorylation and cellular assay in HepG2 cells         of TGF-β RI kinase, respectively). It minimally affects a panel         of nine closely related kinases including p38 MAPK (IC₅₀>16 μM).         It is available from Enzo (see website at         enzolifesciences.com/ALX-270-445/alk5-inhibitor-ii/).     -   3-(6-Methyl-2-pyridinyl)-N-phenyl-4-(4-quinolinyl)-1H-pyrazole-1-carbothioamide         (also known as A83-01 from Tocris Bioscience; a selective         inhibitor of TGF-β type I receptor ALK5 kinase, type I         Activin/nodal receptor ALK4 and type I nodal receptor ALK7 (IC50         values can, e.g., be 12, 45 and 7.5 nM respectively);     -   2-(3-(6-Methylpyridine-2-yl)-IH-pyrazol-4-yl)-1,5-naphthyridine         (also known as SJN 2511 from Tocris Bioscience; selective         inhibitor of the TGF-β type I receptor ALK5 (IC50 values can,         e.g., be 0.004 and 0.023 μM for ALK5 autophosphorylation and         ALK5 binding, respectively);     -   4-[4-(2,3-Dihydro-1,4-benzodioxin-6-yl)-5-(2-pyridinyl)-IH-imidazol-2-yl]benzamide         (also known as D 4476 from Tocris Bioscience; a selective         inhibitor of casein kinase 1 (CK1) and TGF-β type-1 receptor         (ALK5) that displays greater than 20-fold selectivity over         SAPK2/p38);     -   4-[3-(2-Pyridinyl)-1H-pyrazol-4-yl]-quinoline (also known as LY         364947 from Tocris Bioscience; a selective inhibitor of TGF-β         type-I receptor (TGF-β R1, TGFR-I, TβR-1, ALK-5) (IC50 values         can, e.g., be 59, 400 and 1400 nM for TGR-β RI, TGF-β RII and         MLK-7K respectively);     -   2-(4-(benzo[d][1,3]dioxol-5-yl)-2-tert-butyl-1H-imidazol-5-yl)-6-methylpyridine         (also known as SB505124, and available from Selleckchem.com; a         selective inhibitor of ALK4 and ALK5 (e.g., with IC50 of 129 nM         and 47 nM, respectively);     -   6-[2-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)-5-(6-methyl-2-pyridinyl)-1H-imidazol-4-yl]quinoxaline         (also known as SB 525334 from Sigma-Aldrich; a selective         inhibitor of transforming growth factor-β receptor I (ALK5,         TGF-βRI), with IC50=14.3 nM, for example);     -   2-(5-Chloro-2-fluorophenyl)-4-[(4-pyridyl)amino]pteridine (also         known as SD 208 from Tocris Bioscience; a potent, orally active         ATP-competitive transforming growth factor-β receptor 1         (TGF-βRI) inhibitor, e.g., with IC50=49 nanomolar);     -   4-(6-(4-(piperazin-1-yl)phenyl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-3-yl)quinoline         (also known as LDN-193189 from Miltenyi Biotec); and     -   any combination thereof.

The inhibitor that directly or indirectly negatively regulates TGF-beta signaling can, for example, be selected from the group consisting of SB431542, A83-01, SB-431542, A83-01, SJN-2511, LY-36494, SB-505124, SB-525334, and SD-208. In some embodiments, an inhibitor that directly or indirectly negatively regulates TGF-beta signaling can inhibit ALK4, ALK5 and/or ALK7. For example, the inhibitor that directly or indirectly negatively regulates TGF-beta signaling can be A83-01, with the following structure.

The TGF-beta inhibitor can also be in the form of a salt or hydrate of any of the foregoing compounds.

The time of contacting or mixing a TGFβ receptor inhibitor with a population of definitive endodermal cells can vary, for example, from about 0.5 days to about 10 days, or from 1 days to about 10 days, or from 1.5 days to about 8 days, or from 2 days to about 7 days, or from 2 days to about 6 days, or from about 2 days to about 5 days, or about 2 days to 4 days.

The time of contacting or mixing a TGFβ receptor inhibitor with a population of pancreatic progenitor cells can vary, for example, from about 0.5 days to about 10 days, or from 1 days to about 8 days, or from 1.5 days to about 6 days, or from 1.5 days to about 5 days, or from 2 days to about 4 days, or about 3 days.

TGFβ receptor inhibitors can be used at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 0.05 μM to about 9 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 8 μM, or from about 0.2 μM to about 7 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 6 μM, or from about 0.4 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 3 μM, or about 1 μM.

Various methods for determining if a substance is a TGF-beta inhibitor are available. For example, a cell-based assay can be employed in which cells are stably transfected with a reporter construct comprising the human PAI-1 promoter or Smad binding sites, driving a luciferase reporter gene. Inhibition of luciferase activity relative to control groups can be used as a measure of compound activity (De Gouville et al., Br J Pharmacol. 2005 May; 145(2): 166-177). Another example is the ALPHASCREEN® phosphosensor assay for measurement of kinase activity (Drew A E et al., Comparison of 2 Cell-Based Phosphoprotein Assays to Support Screening and Development of an ALK Inhibitor, J Biomol Screen 16(2) 164-173, 2011).

Hedgehog Pathway Inhibitors

As shown herein, addition of inhibitors of the hedgehog pathway (without addition of any growth factors) to definitive endoderm cells increases the proportion and yield of Pdx1⁺ and/or Nkx6.1⁺ pancreatic progenitor cells. For example, more than about 5%, or more than about 10%, or more than about 15%, or more than about 20%, or about 25% of the cells were Pdx1 positive and/or Nkx6.1 positive.

The hedgehog pathway inhibitors can be added to cells that express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof.

To increase the proportion of cells that express markers indicative of a pancreatic progenitor cell phenotype, a selected population of cells (e.g., definitive endoderm cells) is contacted or mixed with a hedgehog pathway inhibitor for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate at least some of the cells into pancreatic progenitor cells.

The time of contacting or mixing a hedgehog pathway inhibitor with the selected population of cells can vary, for example, from about 0.5 days to about 12 days, or from 1 days to about 10 days, or from 1.5 days to about 8 days, or from 2 days to about 7 days, or from 2.5 days to about 6 days, or from about 3 days to about 5 days, or about 4 days.

Hedgehog pathway inhibitors can be used at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 0.05 μM to about 9 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 8 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 7 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 6 μM, or from about 0.75 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 3 μM, or about 2 μM.

A variety of hedgehog pathway inhibitors can be employed. Examples of hedgehog pathway inhibitors include, for example, LDE 225 (Novartis), cyclopamine, MK-4101 (Merck), GDC-0449 (Genentech), XL-139 (BMS-833923) (Bristol Myers Squibb), PF-04449913 (Pfizer), robotnikinin, and Cur-61414 (G-024856).

Notch Inhibitor

As shown herein, addition of inhibitors of Notch to definitive endoderm cells increases the proportion and yield of Pdx1⁺ and/or Nkx6.1⁺ pancreatic progenitor cells. For example, more than about 5%, or more than about 10%, or more than about 15%, or more than about 20%, or about 25% of the cells were Pdx1 positive and/or Nkx6.1 positive. In addition Notch inhibitors can also increase the proportion and yield of mature pancreatic beta cells.

The Notch inhibitor can operate in any manner that inhibits Notch function. For example, the Notch inhibitor can inhibit Notch signaling, inhibit Notch transcription, inhibit Notch translation, or competitively inhibit Notch. Examples of Notch inhibitors include gamma secretase inhibitors, Notch interfering RNA, and dominant negative Notch proteins.

Notch signaling can be modulated by altering the activity of the gamma-secretase complex. This complex cleaves the Notch receptor releasing the Notch intracellular domain (reviewed in Fortini, Nature Reviews Molecular and Cell Biology 3: 673-684 (2002)). Gamma-secretase inhibitors reduce the level of Notch signaling and lead to effects that resemble or are identical to the phenotypes produced by loss of function mutations in Notch genes in a variety of organisms and experimental systems (Dovey et al., Journal of Neurochemistry 76:173-181 (2001); Hadland et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98: 7487-7491 (2001); Doerfler et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 98: 9312-9317 (2001); Micchelli et al., The FASEB Journal 17: 79-81 (2002)).

A variety of Notch and/or gamma-secretase inhibitors can be employed, including any of the following:

-   -   Compound E (C-E) is a cell permeable, potent, selective,         non-transition state and non-competitive inhibitor of         γ-secretase (IC₅₀=0.3 nM for total β-amyloid) and Notch         processing, which inhibits cell differentiation. At higher         concentrations (20-400 μM), compound E only weakly affects the         presenilase activity. Compound E is commercially available from         a variety of sources, including Enzo Life Sciences         (enzolifesciences.com/ALX-270-415/compound-e/). The structure of         compound E is shown below.

-   -   RO4929097 is a γ secretase inhibitor (available from         Selleckcehem.com) with IC50 of 4 nM, inhibiting cellular         processing of A1340 and Notch with EC50 of 14 nM and 5 nM,         respectively. R04929097 has the following structure:

-   -   DAPT (GSI-IX) is a γ-secretase inhibitor (available from         Sigma-Aldrich) that inhibits Aβ production. DAPT has the         following structure:

-   -   Gamma-Secretase Inhibitor I, which has the following structure:         Z-Leu-Leu-Nle-CHO (Nle=Norleucine) (available from EMD Millipore         (see,         emdmillipore.com/life-science-research/gamma-secretase-inhibitor).     -   Gamma-Secretase Inhibitor II, which is a cell-permeable,         reversible and selective peptidomimetic inhibitor of γ-secretase         (IC₅₀=13 μM for Aβ). It displays only weak inhibitory activity         against calpain II (IC₅₀=100 μM in a purified enzyme assay).         Gamma-Secretase Inhibitor II has the following structure:

In some embodiments, the Notch inhibitor is compound E.

The Notch inhibitor can be used in various concentrations. For example, the Notch inhibitor can be employed at a concentration of about 0.001 micromolar to about 200 micromolar, or about 0.01 micromolar to about 100 micromolar, or about 0.05 micromolar to about 10 micromolar, or about 0.1 micromolar in a solution. In a dry formulation, Notch inhibitor can be present in amounts of about 0.01 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 0.1 mg to about 100 mg, or about 1 mg to about 10 mg.

Cells can be incubated in a medium containing a Notch inhibitor (e.g., compound E (C-E)), for varying amounts of time. For example, the cells can be incubated in a medium containing a Notch inhibitor until at least some of the cells express pancreatic progenitor markers such as Pdx1 and/or Nkx6.1⁺. The incubation time can vary, for example, from about 0.5 days to about 5 days, or from about 1 day to about 4 days, or from about 1 days to about 3 days, or about 2 days.

Alternatively, when converting pancreatic progenitor cells to mature pancreatic beta cells, the cells can be incubated until markers such as insulin and/or Pdx1. The incubation time for conversion of pancreatic progenitor cells to mature pancreatic beta cells can vary, for example, from about 2 days to about 20 days, or from about 4 days to about 16 days, or from about 6 days to about 15 days, or from about 9 days to about 14 days, or about 12 days.

BMP4 Signaling Inhibitor

BMP4 is a potent growth factor that has a role in mesodermal differentiation, basic body plan formation, and determination of the proximal-distal, left-right, and dorsal-ventral axes. BMP4 elicits different biological responses depending on the concentration of the secreted form. For example, high levels of BMP4 in early embryonic development are associated with commitment to a ventral fate, while low levels are associated with a commitment to dorsal neural and muscular tissue. Secreted active BMP4 can be inhibited at the extracellular level by interacting with secreted BMP4 antagonists, such as noggin, chordin, CeM, DAN, and Gremlin.

BMP4 signaling inhibitors are available. For example, the methods and compositions described herein can include any of the BMP4 inhibitors described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,507,501, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. Another example of a BMP4 signaling inhibitor is 3-(6-amino-5-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)pyridin-3-yl)phenol (K02288), which inhibits BMP4 mediated phosphorylation of Smad1/5/8 (Sanvitale et al., A New Class of Small Molecule Inhibitor of BMP Signaling, PLOS One 8(4): e62721 (Apr. 30, 2013). In some embodiments, the BMP4 signaling inhibitor can be 4-(6-(4-(piperazin-1-yl)phenyl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-3-yl)quinoline (LDN-193189).

The BMP4 signaling inhibitor can be used in various concentrations. For example, the BMP4 signaling inhibitor can be employed at a concentration of about 0.001 micromolar to about 200 micromolar, or about 0.01 micromolar to about 100 micromolar, or about 0.05 micromolar to about 10 micromolar, or about 0.1 micromolar in a solution. In a dry formulation, BMP4 signaling inhibitor can be present in amounts of about 0.01 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 0.1 mg to about 100 mg, or about 1 mg to about 10 mg.

Cells can be incubated in a medium containing a BMP4 signaling inhibitor (e.g., LDN-193189), for varying amounts of time. For example, the cells can be incubated in a medium containing a BMP4 signaling inhibitor until at least some of the cells express pancreatic progenitor markers such as Pdx1⁺ and/or Nkx6.1⁺. The incubation time can vary, for example, from about 0.5 days to about 5 days, or from about 1 day to about 4 days, or from about 1 day to about 3 days, or about 2 or 3 days.

Activators of Protein Kinase C

Protein kinase C is an enzyme that regulates the function of other proteins by phosphorylation of serine and/or threonine hydroxy groups on those proteins.

Activators of protein kinase C include phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate (PBDu), Bryostatin, FR 236924, (−)-Indolactam V, PEP 005, phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate, phorbol 12-myristate13-acetate, PKC fragment (530-558), pseudo RACK1, SC-10, SC-9, and combinations thereof. These protein kinase C activators are available from Tocris (see website at tocris.com/pharmacologicalBrowser.php?ItemId=164170&Type=Activators#. U8mK601 OU50.

The protein kinase C activator can be used in various concentrations. For example, the protein kinase C activator can be employed at a concentration of about 0.01 nanomolar to about 3 nanomolar, or about 0.05 nanomolar to about 1 nanomolar, or about 0.1 nanomolar to about 0.5 nanomolar, or about 0.2 nanomolar in a solution. In a dry formulation, protein kinase C activator can be present in amounts of about 0.01 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 0.1 mg to about 100 mg, or about 1 mg to about 10 mg.

Cells can be incubated in a medium containing a protein kinase C activator (e.g., phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate), for varying amounts of time. For example, the cells can be incubated in a medium containing a protein kinase C activator until at least some of the cells express pancreatic progenitor markers such as Pdx1⁺ and/or Nkx6.1⁺. The incubation time can vary, for example, from about 0.5 days to about 7 days, or from about 1 day to about 5 days, or about 2 to 4 days.

Expansion of Pancreatic Progenitor Cells

Pancreatic progenitor cells can be expanded using the same procedures as for expansion of endodermal cells. However the pancreatic progenitor cell colonies easily detached from culture plates when such procedures were employed. Removal of the WNT activator, and increased amounts of growth factors (e.g., EGF) obviated this problem and improved pancreatic progenitor cell expansion. Under these optimized culture conditions, pancreatic progenitor cells were expanded more than two hundred million fold with an approximate doubling time of 3 days for up to 14 passages. Moreover, the cells maintained their bi-potent progenitor identity as evidenced by the presence of PDX1 and NKX6.1 double-positive cells at passage 12.

Pancreatic progenitor cells are ideal for transplantation and treatment due to their potential for sustained proliferation and proper differentiation. The expansion methods and compositions described herein facilitate production of sufficient numbers of cells to be therapeutically useful.

Pancreatic Beta Cells

Pancreatic beta cells can be identified by their expression of insulin, C-peptide, PDX1, NKX6.1, NEUROD1, NKX2.2, glucagon, or any combination thereof. The procedures and compositions described herein can convert more than about 1%, or more than about 2%, or more than about 3%, or more than about 4%, or about 5% of pancreatic progenitor cells to pancreatic beta cells as illustrated by expression of insulin, C-peptide, PDX1, NKX6.1, NEUROD1, NKX2.2, glucagon, or any combination thereof.

Pancreatic beta cells can be generated from pancreatic progenitor cells by incubation in media that includes a TGFβ receptor inhibitor (e.g. A83-01), a polyADP-ribose synthetase inhibitor (e.g. nicotinamide), an agonist of glucocorticoid receptor (e.g., dexamethasone), a Notch Signaling Inhibitor (e.g., Compound E), and combinations thereof. Conversion of pancreatic progenitor cells to pancreatic beta cells is improved by inclusion of all four of the foregoing agents in the culture medium. Conversion of pancreatic progenitor cells to pancreatic beta cells is also improved by addition of vitamin C, an activator of adenylyl cyclase (e.g. Forskolin), an agonist of Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (e.g., Exendin-4), a Ca²⁺ channel agonist (e.g. BayK-8644), or any combination thereof to the culture medium.

Pancreatic beta cells can also be generated in cell culture media containing laminin, nicotinamide, and B27 etc. as previously reported (Schroeder et al., 2006). As described herein, small molecules such as 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid and inhibitors of a p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase strongly and synergistically increased the number of insulin⁺/Pdx1⁺ cells in the mixture. For example, the SB203580 inhibitor of a p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase and/or 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid promote pancreatic beta-cell maturation and increased the number of insulin⁺/Pdx1⁺ cells in the mixture.

Pancreatic beta-like cells can be generated by successive exposure of less differentiated cells such as pancreatic progenitor cells to different media using a process referred to herein as Protocol 2. In a first step, pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells were cultured in the pancreatic maturation media containing heparin, zinc salts, a TGF-β3 inhibitor (e.g., Alk:5 inhibitor), a BMP4 signaling inhibitor (e.g., LDN-193189), a T3 thyroid hormone, a Notch Signaling Inhibitor (e.g., Compound E), a Ca²⁺ channel agonist (e.g. BayK-8644), vitamin C, and combinations thereof to generate a first population of partially differentiated pancreatic beta-like cells. In a second step, this first population of cells is contacted with a composition containing heparin zinc salts, a TGF-β3 inhibitor (e.g., Alk5 inhibitor), a BMP4 signaling inhibitor (e.g., LDN-193189), a T3 thyroid hormone, cysteine, an anti-oxidant (e.g., vitamin E or a derivative thereof such as 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid), an Axl kinase inhibitor (e.g., R428), a Ca²⁺ channel agonist (e.g. BayK1-8644), vitamin C, and combinations thereof to generate a second population of pancreatic beta-like cells. In a third step, the second population of cells is cultured to generate 3D aggregates under low-attachment plates. FIG. 12A illustrates one way to perform protocol 2 to generate pancreatic beta-like cells (cPB) from pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells.

Several of the factors employed to convert pancreatic progenitor cells to pancreatic beta cells have been described in the foregoing sections. Further information about other factors useful for converting pancreatic progenitor cells to pancreatic beta cells is described below.

PolyADP-Ribose Synthetase Inhibitors

PolyADP-ribose synthetase is also referred to as polyADP-ribose polymerase (PARP). PolyADP-ribose synthetase is an enzyme that catalyzes the poly-ADP ribosylation reaction; this enzyme has an important role in DNA repair or transcriptional regulation.

As shown herein, addition of polyADP-ribose synthetase inhibitor to pancreatic progenitor cells increases the proportion and yield of cells that express genes indicative of the pancreatic beta cell phenotype. To increase the proportion of cells that convert to pancreatic beta cells (and express markers indicative of a pancreatic beta cell phenotype), a selected population of cells (e.g., pancreatic progenitor cells) is contacted or mixed with one or more polyADP-ribose synthetase inhibitors for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate at least some of the cells into pancreatic beta cells.

Examples of a polyADP-ribose synthetase inhibitor include nicotinamide, 3-aminobenzamide, 1,5-isoquinolinediol and combinations thereof.

The polyADP-ribose synthetase inhibitor can be used in various concentrations. For example, the polyADP-ribose synthetase inhibitor can be employed at a concentration of about 0.1 millimolar to about 100 millimolar, or about 1 millimolar to about 50 millimolar, or about 3 millimolar to about 30 millimolar, or about 5 micromolar to about 15 millimolar, or about 10 millimolar in a solution. In a dry formulation, polyADP-ribose synthetase inhibitor can be present in amounts of about 1 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 10 mg to about 100 mg.

Cells can be incubated in a medium containing a polyADP-ribose synthetase inhibitor (e.g., nicotinamide), for varying amounts of time. For example, the cells can be incubated in a medium containing a polyADP-ribose synthetase inhibitor until at least some of the cells express pancreatic beta cell markers such as Pdx1⁺, insulin, C-peptide, or a combination thereof. The incubation time can vary, for example, from about 0.5 days to about 5 days, or from about 1 day to about 4 days, or from about 1 days to about 3 days, or about 2 or 3 days.

p38 Mitogen-Activated Protein (MAP) Kinase Inhibitors

Inhibitors of a p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase can be added to Pdx⁺/Nkx6.1⁺ pancreatic progenitor cells to generate pancreatic beta cells.

To increase the proportion of cells that convert to pancreatic beta cells (and express markers indicative of a pancreatic beta cell phenotype), a selected population of cells (e.g., pancreatic progenitor cells) is contacted or mixed with p38 mitogen-activated protein inhibitors for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate at least some of the cells into pancreatic beta cells.

Examples of p38 mitogen-activated protein inhibitors that can be used in the methods and compositions described herein include, but are not limited to, p38 inhibitors SB203580 (i.e., 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-(4-methylsulfinylphenyl)-5-(4-pyridyl)-1H-imidazole), SB202190 (i.e., 4-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5-(4-pyridyl) imidazole), SB239063 (i.e., trans-1-(-Hydroxycyclohexyl)-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-(2-methoxypyrimidin-4-yl)imidazole), SB220025 (5-(2-Aminopyrimidin-4-yl)-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-1-(4-piperidinyl)imidazole trihydrochloride), PD169316 (4-(4-Fluorophenyl)-2-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(4-pyridyl)-1H-imidazole), RPR200765A ([2-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-pyridin-4-yl-1H-imidazol-2-yl]-5-methyl-1,3-dioxan-5-yl]-morpholin-4-ylmethanone; methanesulfonic acid) AMG 548 (2-[[(2S)-2-amino-3-phenylpropyl]amino]-3-methyl-5-naphthalen-2-yl-6-pyridin-4-ylpyrimidin-4-one), BIRB-796 (1-[5-tert-butyl-2-(4-methylphenyl)pyrazol-3-yl]-3-[4-(2-morpholin-4-ylethoxy)naphthalen-1-yl]urea), SCID-469 (6-Chloro-5-[[(2R,5S)-4-[(4-fluorophenyl)methyl]-2,5-dimethyl-1-piperazinyl]carbonyl]-N,N,1-trimethyl-α-oxo-1H-Indole-3-acetamide), SCID-323 and VX-702 disclosed in Nikas et al. (Curr Opin Drug Discov Devel. 8, 421-430. (2005)), FR167653 disclosed in Yamamoto et al. (Eur. J. Pharmacol 314, 137-142 (1996)), and combinations thereof.

The time of contacting or incubating p38 mitogen-activated protein inhibitors with pancreatic progenitor cells can vary, for example, from about 1 days to about 20 days, or from 2 days to about 15 days, or from 3 days to about 13 days, or from 4 days to about 12 days, or from 5 days to about 11 days, or from about 6 days to about 11 days, or for about 9 days.

For example, inhibitors of a p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase can be added to a selected cell population (pancreatic progenitor cells) while directing the cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells. Inhibitors of a p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase such as SB203580 can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.1 μM to about 500 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 2 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 2.5 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 3 μM to about 25 μM, or from about 4 μM to about 10 μM, or about 5 μM.

Agonists of Glucagon-like Peptide-1

Glucagon-like peptide-1 agonists are a group of medications that mimic the actions of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). GLP-1 is one of several naturally occurring incretin compounds that affect the body after they are released from the gut during digestion. Because of its name, GLP-1 might seem to act like glucagon that increases glucose production by the liver and raises glucose levels. Instead, GLP-1 lowers both glucose and glucagon levels. Despite their different actions, GLP-1 and glucagon are both derived from the same parent compound called proglucagon, hence the similarity in names.

To increase the proportion of cells that convert to pancreatic beta cells (and express markers indicative of a pancreatic beta cell phenotype), a selected population of cells (e.g., pancreatic progenitor cells) is contacted or mixed with GLP-1 agonists for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate at least some of the cells into pancreatic beta cells.

Examples of GLP-1 agonists that can be used in the methods and compositions described herein include, but are not limited to, Extendin-4, exenatide (Byetta/Bydureon), liraglutide (Victoza), lixisenatide (Lyxumia), albiglutide (Eperzan), dulaglutide, and combinations thereof.

The time of contacting or incubating GLP-1 agonists with pancreatic progenitor cells can vary, for example, from about 5 days to about 40 days, or from 8 days to about 35 days, or from 10 days to about 30 days, or from 12 days to about 25 days, or for about 8 to 12 days followed by a second incubation of about 8 days to about 12 days.

For example, GLP-1 agonists can be added to a selected cell population (pancreatic progenitor cells) while directing the cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells. GLP-1 agonists such as Extendin-4 can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 5 ng/ml to about 200 ng/ml, or from about 10 ng/ml to about 175 ng/ml, or from about 15 ng/ml to about 150 ng/ml, or from about 20 ng/ml to about 150 ng/ml, or from about 25 ng/ml to about 125 ng/ml, or from about 30 ng/ml to about 100 ng/ml, or from about 35 ng/ml to about 80 ng/ml, or from about 40 ng/ml to about 60 ng/ml, or about 50 ng/ml.

Adenylyl Cyclase Activators

Adenylyl cyclase is an enzyme that employs pyrophosphate to catalyze the conversion of ATP to 3′,5′-cyclic ATP, which is a second messenger involved in several biological processes. Although there are six distinct classes of adenylyl cyclase enzymes, all catalyze the same reaction.

To increase the proportion of cells that convert to pancreatic beta cells (and express markers indicative of a pancreatic beta cell phenotype), a selected population of cells (e.g., pancreatic progenitor cells) is contacted or mixed with one or more adenylyl cyclase activators for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate at least some of the cells into pancreatic beta cells.

Examples of adenylyl cyclase activators that can be used in the methods and compositions described herein include, but are not limited to, Forskolin, NKR 477, PACAP 1-27, PACAP 1-38, and combinations thereof. Each of these adenylyl cyclase activators is available from Tocris.

The time of contacting or incubating adenylyl cyclase activators with pancreatic progenitor cells can vary, for example, from about 5 days to about 40 days, or from 8 days to about 35 days, or from 10 days to about 30 days, or from 12 days to about 25 days, or for about 8 to 12 days followed by a second incubation of about 8 days to about 12 days.

For example, adenylyl cyclase activators can be added to a selected cell population (pancreatic progenitor cells) while directing the cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells. Adenylyl cyclase activators such as Forskolin can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.1 μM to about 500 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 2 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 2.5 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 3 μM to about 25 μM, or from about 5 μM to about 15 μM, or about 10 μM.

Glucocorticoid Receptor Agonist

Glucocorticoid receptors bind cortisol and glucocorticoids and regulate transcription of genes involved in development, metabolism, and immune responses. Glucocorticoid receptors are expressed in almost every cell in the body.

To increase the proportion of cells that convert to pancreatic beta cells (and express markers indicative of a pancreatic beta cell phenotype), a selected population of cells (e.g., pancreatic progenitor cells) is contacted or mixed with glucocorticoid receptor agonists for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate at least some of the cells into pancreatic beta cells.

Examples of glucocorticoid receptor agonists that can be used in the methods and compositions described herein include, but are not limited to, dexamethasone, corticosterone, fluticasone propionate, GSK 9027, methylprednisolone, mometasone furoate, and combinations thereof.

The time of contacting or incubating glucocorticoid receptor agonists with pancreatic progenitor cells can vary, for example, from about 5 days to about 40 days, or from 8 days to about 35 days, or from 10 days to about 30 days, or from 12 days to about 25 days, or for about 8 to 12 days followed by a second incubation of about 8 days to about 12 days.

For example, glucocorticoid receptor agonists can be added to a selected cell population (pancreatic progenitor cells) while directing the cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells. Glucocorticoid receptor agonists such as dexamethasone can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.1 μM to about 500 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 2 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 2.5 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 3 μM to about 25 μM, or from about 5 μM to about 15 μM, or about 10 μM.

Antioxidants

An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a chemical reaction involving the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state. Oxidation reactions can produce free radicals. In turn, these radicals can start chain reactions. Examples of antioxidants include as glutathione, vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin E, as 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid, catalase, superoxide dismutase and various peroxidases.

One example of an antioxidant that can be used in the compositions and methods described herein is TROLOX™. Trolox™ (6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2 carboxylic acid) is a water-soluble analog of vitamin E available from Hoffman-LaRoche. It is an antioxidant like vitamin E and it can be used in biological or biochemical applications to reduce oxidative stress or damage.

The antioxidants can be added to a cell population (e.g., pancreatic progenitor cells) while directing the cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells. Antioxidants such as 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2 carboxylic acid can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.1 μM to about 500 μM. or from about 0.5 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 2 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 2.5 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 3 μM to about 25 ƒM, or from about 5 μM to about 15 μM, or about 10 μM.

Axl Kinase Inhibitors

Examples of Axl kinase inhibitors that can be used in the compositions and methods described herein include R428, 549076, LY2801653, MP-470 (Amuvatinib), SKI-606 (Bosutinib), MGCD 265, MGCD516, ASP2215, XL184 (Cabozantinib), BMS-777607 (ASLAN 002), GSK1363089/XL880 (Foretinib), SGI-7079, DP3975, NPS-1034, LDC1267, NA80x1, YW327.6S2 antibodies, GL21.T aptamers, and combinations thereof.

R428 (BGB324) is an inhibitor of Axl with IC₅₀ of 14 nM, demonstrating that R428 is more than 100-fold selective for Axl than for Abl. Selectivity of R428 for Axl is also greater than Mer and Tyro3 (50-to-100-fold more selective) and InsR, EGFR, HER2, and PDGFRβ (100-fold more selective). The structure of R428 is shown below:

S49076 (3-[(3-{[4-(4-Morpholinylmethyl)-1H-pyrrol-2-yl]methylene}-2-oxo-2,3-dihydro-1H-indol-5-yl)methyl]-1,3-thiazolidine-2,4-dione) is a novel, potent inhibitor of MET, AXL/MER, and FGFR1/2/3. S49076 potently blocks cellular phosphorylation of MET, AXL, and FGFRs and inhibits downstream signaling in vitro and in vivo. In cell models, S49076 inhibits the proliferation of MET- and FGFR2-dependent gastric cancer cells, blocks MET-driven migration of lung carcinoma cells, and inhibits colony formation of hepatocarcinoma cells expressing FGFR1/2 and AXL. See, Burbridge et al., Mol Cancer Ther 12(9):1749-62 (September 2013).

LY2801653 is a type-II ATP competitive, slow-off inhibitor of MET tyrosine kinase. The K_(i) value of LY2801653 for MET is 2 nM. However, preclinical testing also has shown that LY2801653 inhibits several other receptor tyrosine oncokinases including MST1R, FLT3, AXL, MERTK, TEK, ROS1, and DDR1/2 and the serine/threonine kinases MKNK1/2. The structure of LY2801653 is shown below.

LY2801653 can be obtained from a variety of sources such as MedChem Express (see website at medchemexpress.com/LY2801653.html?gclid=COnZ-MLq28YCFY4AaQodC7ALeQ), APExBio (see website at apexbt.com/ly2801653.html?gclid=CImtkffq28YCFQipaQodFWEBmQ), or KareBay Biochem (see website at karebaybio.com/products/ly2801653.html? gclid=CI7IyKrr28YCFQqsaQodUJIHog).

Amuvatinib (MP-470) is a potent and multi-targeted inhibitor of c-Kit, PDGFRα and Flt3 with IC₅₀ of 10 nM, 40 nM and 81 nM, respectively. MP-470 (1 μM) also inhibits tyrosine phosphorylation of AXL. The structure of MP-470 is shown below.

Bosutinib is selective for Src over non-Src family kinases with an IC50 of 1.2 nM, and potently inhibits Src-dependent cell proliferation with an IC50 of 100 nM. Bosutinib is also being tested as an Axl kinase inhibitor (Wu et al., Oncotarget 5(20): 9546-9563 (October 2014)). The structure of Bosutinib is shown below.

MGCD-265 is a multi-target inhibitor of receptor tyrosine kinases. In c-Met-driven or non-c-Met-driven mice xenograft models of MKN45, U87MG, MDA-MB-231, COLO205, and A549 tumor cells, MGCD-265 (20 mg/kg-60 mg/kg) inhibits tumor growth and c-Met signaling. The structure of MGCD-265 is shown below.

MGCD-265 is available from Selleck.com (see website at selleckchem.com/products/MGCD-265.html).

MGCD516 is a small molecule that has demonstrated potent inhibition of a closely related spectrum of tyrosine kinases including Trk, RET and DDR, which are key regulators of signaling pathways that lead to cell growth, survival and tumor progression. It is made by Mirati Therapeutics.

Gilteritinib, also known as (ASP2215), is a potent FLT3/AXL inhibitor, which showed potent anti-leukemic activity against AML with either or both FLT3-ITD and FLT3-D835 mutations. Among the 78 tyrosine kinases tested in vitro, ASP2215 inhibited FLT3, LTK, ALK, and AXL kinases by over 50% at 1 nM. ASP2215 is available from ActiveBiochem.com. The structure of ASP2215 is shown below.

The Axl kinase inhibitors can be added to a cell population (e.g., pancreatic progenitor cells) while directing the cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells. Axl kinase inhibitors such as R428 can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 0.05 μM to about 40 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 20 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 5 μM, or about 2 μM.

T3 Thyroid Hormone

The thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and its prohormone, thyroxine (T4), are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland that are primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism. These hormones bind iodine. The structure of the T3 thyroid hormone is as follows:

Thyroid hormones such as the T3 thyroid hormone can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 0.05 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 0.2 μM to about 7 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 0.7 μM to about 2 μM, or about 1 μM.

Ca²⁺ Channel Agonists

Ca²⁺ channel agonists can increase calcium influx into calcium channels of excitable tissues. To increase the proportion of cells that convert to pancreatic beta cells (and express markers indicative of a pancreatic beta cell phenotype), a selected population of cells (e.g., pancreatic progenitor cells) is contacted or mixed with Ca²⁺ channel agonists for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate at least some of the cells into pancreatic beta cells.

Examples of Ca²⁺ channel agonists that can be used in the methods and compositions described herein include, but are not limited to, BayK-8644 (3-pyridinecarboxylic acid, 1,4-dihydro-2,6-dimethyl-5-nitro-4-(2-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl), methyl ester), CGP 28392 (2-methyl-3-methoxycarbonyl-4-(2′-difluoromethoxyphenyl)-5-oxo-1,4,5,7-tetrahydrofuro(3,4-b)pyridine), calcitriol, 1-ethyl-2-benzimidazolinone, FPL 64176 (methyl 2,5-dimethyl-4-(2-(phenylmethyl)benzoyl)-1H-pyrrole-3-carboxylate), PN 202-791 (4-isopropyl-(2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl)-1,4-dihydro-2,6-dimethyl-5-nitro-3-pyridinecarboxylate), SAN 202791, and combinations thereof.

The time of contacting or incubating Ca²⁺ channel agonists with pancreatic progenitor cells can vary, for example, from about 5 days to about 40 days, or from 8 days to about 35 days, or from 10 days to about 30 days, or from 12 days to about 25 days, or for about 8 to 12 days followed by a second incubation of about 8 days to about 12 days.

For example, Ca²⁺ channel agonists can be added to a selected cell population (pancreatic progenitor cells) while directing the cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells. Ca²⁺ channel agonists such as BayK-8644 can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.05 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 0.2 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 25 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 1.5 μM to about 4 μM, or about 2 μM.

Basement Membrane Proteins

Basement membrane proteins can increase calcium influx into calcium channels of excitable tissues. To increase the proportion of cells that convert to pancreatic beta cells (and express markers indicative of a pancreatic beta cell phenotype), a selected population of cells (e.g., pancreatic progenitor cells) is contacted or mixed with one or more basement membrane proteins for a time and at a concentration sufficient to differentiate at least some of the cells into pancreatic beta cells.

Examples of basement membrane proteins that can be used in the methods and compositions described herein include, but are not limited to, laminin, collagens, fibrillins, integrins, entactins, dystroglcans, and combinations thereof.

The time of contacting or incubating one or more basement membrane proteins with pancreatic progenitor cells can vary, for example, from about 1 days to about 30 days, or from about 2 days to about 25 days, or from about 3 days to about 20 days, or from about 5 days to about 15 days, or for about 7 to 12 days.

For example, basement membrane proteins can be added to a selected cell population (pancreatic progenitor cells) while directing the cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells. Glucocorticoid receptor agonists such as dexamethasone can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.05 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 0.2 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 25 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 1.5 μM to about 4 μM, or about 2 μM.

Other Agents

The compositions and methods that can be used for converting pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells to pancreatic beta-like cells can also include heparin zinc salts, and/or cysteine.

The heparin can be can be added to a selected cell population (pancreatic progenitor cells) while directing the cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells. Heparin can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.05 μg/ml to about 200 μg/ml, or from about 0.1 μg/ml to about 100 μg/ml, or from about 0.5 μg/ml to about 70 μg/ml, or from about 1 μg/ml to about 50 μg/ml, or from about 2 μg/ml to about 20 μg/ml, or from about 5 μg/ml to about 15 μg/ml, or about 10 μg/ml.

The zinc salts that can be employed in the compositions and methods described herein include any pharmaceutically acceptable zinc salt. Examples, include zinc acetate, zinc benzoate, zinc borate, zinc bromide, zinc carbonate, zinc citrate, zinc chloride, zinc glycerophosphate, zinc hexafluorosilicate, zinc dl-lactate (trihydrate), zinc nitrate, zinc phenolsulfonate, zinc silicate, zinc alkanoates having 8-18 carbon atoms, zinc salicylate, zinc stannate, zinc sulfate, zinc tannate, zinc tartrate, zinc titanate, zinc tetrafluoroborate, zinc oxide, zinc peroxide, zinc hydroxide or combinations thereof. The zinc compounds may be used singly or in admixture. Glycine can be present to stabilize the zinc salts. For example, the zinc salts can be zinc sulfate or zinc chloride.

The zinc salts can be added to a cell population (e.g., pancreatic progenitor cells) while directing the cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells. Zinc salts such as zinc sulfate can be employed at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.1 μM to about 500 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 2 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 2.5 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 3 μM to about 25 μM, or from about 5 μM to about 15 μM, or about 10 μM.

Cysteine can be added to a cell population (e.g., pancreatic progenitor cells) while directing the cells to differentiate into pancreatic beta cells at concentrations such as about 0.01 mM to about 10 mM, or from about 0.05 mM to about 9 mM, or from about 0.1 mM to about 8 mM, or from about 0.2 mM to about 7 mM, or from about 0.3 mM to about 6 mM, or from about 0.4 mM to about 5 mM, or from about 0.5 mM to about 3 mM, or about 1 mM.

The disclosure provides a method for directly differentiating pancreatic beta cell equivalents or pancreatic beta-like cells directly from stem cells (e.g., embryonic stem cells) in a reliable and reproducible manner that quickly and efficiently yield substantial numbers of pancreatic beta cell equivalents or pancreatic beta-like cells. The pancreatic beta cell equivalents or pancreatic beta-like cells have physical and functional characteristics of pancreatic beta cells and are, therefore, referred to as pancreatic beta cells herein. It should be noted that the terms “pancreatic beta cells” and “pancreatic beta-like cells” are used interchangeably herein when referring to the cells produced as a result of the disclosed methods. These cells provide a number of potential benefits, including a screening tool useful in drug screens, toxicology studies, and the like, a basic research tool to illuminate critical parameters of normal and diseased pancreatic beta cell function, as products useful in methods of identifying novel therapeutic targets, as tools to test bioengineering devices (including cell encapsulation devices), and as tools to develop organs on chips. The organ-building application is expected to involve, for example, the building of pancreatic islets by combining the pancreatic beta cells with other cell types, e.g., endothelial cells, mesenchymal cells, neural cells, immune cells, other hormone-producing cells, non-pancreatic tissues and organs, e.g., liver, fat, muscle, and the like, and as a cell therapy product for subjects, such as patients, with diabetes.

The disclosed methods provide for the production of functional pancreatic insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells that function like endogenous human pancreatic beta cells residing in human islets from human pluripotent stem cells by addition of vitamin C and the BayK-8644 compound (i.e., methyl 2,6-dimethyl-5-nitro-4-[2-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-1,4-dihydropyridine-3-carboxy late) at late stages of differentiation (FIG. 15). The disclosed methods and cells provide advantages over the state of the art in the form of a relatively pure generation of pancreatic progenitor cells by exposing stem cells (e.g., embryonic stem cells) to a refined combination and concentration of known factors. In addition, disclosed are two compounds (i.e., vitamin C and BayK-8644) that allow for the improved production of functional pancreatic beta cells in a fast and efficient manner. In addition, the disclosed methods yield pancreatic beta cells that exhibit enhanced survival and function as transplanted pancreatic beta cells, and that exhibit superior pancreatic beta cell phenotype for in vitro use. These advantages enable the use of the disclosed method to produce pancreatic beta cells exhibiting immediate functionality after transplantation, in contrast to methodologies known in the art for transplanting progenitor cells, followed by in vivo maturation of those cells over several months.

The disclosed methods are fast and efficient and result in up to 75% pancreatic beta cells within three weeks of direct differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells. The first stages of direct differentiation utilize a procedure for exactly recapitulating human development by omitting BMP inhibitors during pancreas induction. The time of EGF/KGF exposure has been further extended to 24-48 hours to increase the percentage PDX1/NKX6.1-positive progenitor cells. Of note, progenitors can be expanded in this media without the unwanted induction of precocious endocrine differentiation marked by early NGN3 expression. The disclosed method can contain optimized combinations and concentrations of factors known to induce endocrine differentiation. An improved cocktail can include or consist of DMEM base media containing non-essential amino acids, glutamine, heparin, cysteine, zinc, ALK (anaplastic lymphoma kinase) and BMP (bone morphogenetic protein) inhibition, T3 thyroid hormone (i.e., triiodothyronine) and the gamma secretase inhibitor XX. The protocols disclosed herein for producing functional pancreatic beta cells are faster and more efficient than protocols known in the art; moreover, the addition of vitamin C and BayK-8644 results in the generation of pancreatic beta cells exhibiting improved functionality. These ‘true’ pancreatic beta cells exhibit key features of bona fide pancreatic beta cells, e.g., several-fold increase in insulin secretion upon glucose stimulation, ultrastructural morphology, and functionality after short-term transplantation (FIG. 16).

In some embodiments, a functional pancreatic beta cell produced by the subject methods exhibits a 1-7-fold increase in insulin secretion upon stimulation with glucose. In some embodiments, a functional pancreatic beta cell produced by the subject methods exhibits a 1-10-fold increase in insulin secretion upon stimulation with glucose. In some embodiments, a functional pancreatic beta cell produced by the subject methods exhibits a 1.5-10 fold increase in insulin secretion upon stimulation with glucose (e.g., a 1.5-7-fold, a 2-10-fold, a 2-7-fold, a 3-10-fold, or a 3-7-fold increase in insulin secretion upon stimulation with glucose). In some embodiments, a functional pancreatic beta cell produced by the subject methods exhibits a 1.5-fold or more increase in insulin secretion upon stimulation with glucose (e.g., a 2-fold or more, a 3-fold or more, a 5-fold or more, or a 10-fold or more increase in insulin secretion upon stimulation with glucose).

Consistent with the foregoing descriptions, an aspect of the disclosure is drawn to a method of producing a pancreatic beta cell from a stem cell comprising: (a) exposing a stem cell to Epidermal Growth Factor and/or Keratinocyte Growth Factor for 12-72 hours (e.g., 12-60, 12-48, 12-36, 24-72, or 24-60 hours, e.g., in some cases 24-48 hours) under conditions suitable for cell culture growth, thereby maintaining a progenitor cell; (b) incubating the progenitor cell in a culture medium comprising heparin, cysteine, zinc, ALK inhibitor, BMP inhibitor LDN-193189, T3 thyroid hormone and secretase inhibitor XX to yield a cell in culture; and (c) adding to the cell in culture vitamin C and BayK-8644, thereby producing a functional pancreatic beta cell.

In some embodiments, Epidermal Growth Factor of step (a) is at a concentration in a range of from 10-300 ng/ml (e.g., 10-200, 10-150, 10-100, 10-75, 20-300, 20-200, 20-150, 20-100, 20-75, 25-300, 25-200, 25-150, 25-100, or 25-75 ng/ml, e.g., 50 ng/ml).

In some embodiments, Keratinocyte Growth Factor of step (a) is at a concentration in a range of from 10-300 ng/ml (e.g., 10-200, 10-150, 10-100, 10-75, 20-300, 20-200, 20-150, 20-100, 20-75, 25-300, 25-200, 25-150, 25-100, or 25-75 ng/ml, e.g., 50 ng/ml).

In some cases, the exposing of step (a) is in a culture medium (e.g., DMEM), comprising 0.1-5 mM glutamine (e.g., 0.1-4, 0.1-3, 0.5-5, 0.5-4, 0.5-3, 1-5, 1-4, 1-3, or 1.5-2.5 mM glutamine, e.g., 2 mM glutamine) or 0.05-2.5X GLUTAMAX™ (e.g., 0.05-2X, 0.05-1.5X, 0.2-2.5X, 0.2-2X, 0.2-1.5X, 0.5-2.5X, 0.5-2X, 0.5-1.5X, or 0.75-1.25X GLUTAMAX™, e.g., IX GLUTAMAX™), 0.1-5X non-essential amino acids (e.g., 0.1-4X, 0.1-3X, 0.5-5X, 0.5-4X, 0.5-3X, 0.5-2X, 0.8-5X, 0.8-4X, 0.8-3X, 0.8-2X, 0.8X-1.5X, or 0.8X-1.2X non-essential amino acids), and 0.1-5X B27 supplement (e.g., 0.1-4X, 0.1-3X, 0.5-5X, 0.5-4X, 0.5-3X, 0.5-2X, 0.8-5X, 0.8-4X, 0.8-3X, 0.8-2X, 0.8X-1.5X, or 0.8X-1.2X B27 supplement). In some cases, the exposing of step (a) is in a culture medium (e.g., DMEM), comprising 2 mM glutamine or IX GLUTAMAX™.

In some embodiments, heparin of step (b) is at a concentration in a range of from 2-20 μg/ml (e.g., 2-15, 5-20, or 5-10 μg/ml, e.g., 10 μg/ml). In some embodiments, cysteine of step (b) is at a concentration in a range of from 0.2-5 mM (e.g., 0.2-4, 0.2-3, 0.5-5, 0.5-4, 0.5-2, 0.5-1.5, 0.75-5, 0.75-3, or 0.75-1.25 mM, e.g., 1 mM). In some embodiments, zinc of step (b) is at a concentration in a range of from 2-20 μM (e.g., 2-15, 5-20, 5-15, 7.5-20, 7.5-15, or 7.5-12.5 μM, e.g., 10 μM). In some embodiments, ALK inhibitor of step (b) is at a concentration in a range of from 2-20 μM (e.g., 2-15, 5-20, 5-15, 7.5-20, 7.5-15, or 7.5-12.5 μM, e.g., 10 μM). In some embodiments, BMP inhibitor LDN-193189 of step (b) is at a concentration in a range of from 0.2-2 μM (e.g., 0.2-1.5, 0.2-1, 0.2-0.8, 0.3-2, 0.3-1.5, 0.3-1, or 0.25-0.75 μM, e.g., 0.5 μM). In some embodiments, T3 thyroid hormone of step (b) is at a concentration in a range of from 0.2-5 μM (e.g., 0.2-4, 0.2-3, 0.2-2, 0.5-5, 0.5-4, 0.5-3, 0.5-2, 0.5-1.5, 0.8-5, 0.8-4, 0.8-3, 0.8-2, 0.8-1.5, or 0.8-1.2 μM, e.g., 1 μM). In some embodiments, gamma secretase inhibitor XX of step (b) is at a concentration in a range of from 0.2-5 μM (e.g., 0.2-4, 0.2-3, 0.2-2, 0.5-5, 0.5-4, 0.5-3, 0.5-2, 0.5-1.5, 0.8-5, 0.8-4, 0.8-3, 0.8-2, 0.8-1.5, or 0.8-1.2 μM, e.g., 1 μM).

In some cases, the culture medium (e.g., DMEM) of step (b) comprises 0.1-5 mM glutamine (e.g., 0.1-4, 0.1-3, 0.5-5, 0.5-4, 0.5-3, 1-5, 1-4, 1-3 or 1.5-2.5 mM glutamine, e.g., 2 mM glutamine) or 0.05-2.5x GLUTAMAX™ (e.g., 0.05-2X, 0.05-1.5X, 0.2-2.5X, 0.2-2X, 0.2-1.5X, 0.5-2.5X, 0.5-2X, 0.5-1.5X or 0,75-1,25X GLUTAMAX™, e.g., 1X GLUTAMAX™), and 0.1-5X non-essential amino acids (e.g., 0.1-4X, 0.1-3X, 0.5-5X, 0.5-4X, 0.5-3X, 0.5-2X, 0.8-5X, 0.8-4X, 0.8-3X, 0.8-2X, 0.8-1.5X, or 0.8-1.2X non-essential amino acids). In some cases, the culture medium (e.g., DMEM) of step (b) comprises 2 mM glutamine or 1X GLUTAMAX™.

In some embodiments, vitamin C of step (c) is at a concentration in a range of from 10-2000 μM (e.g., 10-1500, 10-1250, 10-1000, 10-750, 50-2000, 50-1500, 50-1250, 50-1000, 50-750, 100-2000, 100-1500, 100-1250, 100-1000, 100-750, 200-2000, 200-1500, 200-1250, 200-1000, 200-800, or 300-700 μM, e.g., 500 μM). In some embodiments, BayK-8644 of step (c) is at a concentration in a range of from 0.2-5 μM (e.g., 0.2-4, 0.2-3, 0.5-5, 0.5-4, 0.5-3, 1-5, 1-4, 1-3, or 1.5-2.5 μM, e.g., 2 μM).

In addition, experiments disclosed herein have led to protocols for producing pancreatic beta cells using the above-noted protocol, but at lower levels of oxygen, closer to the physiological situation in vivo. Also disclosed herein are data showing that the functional properties of true pancreatic beta cells generated under ambient oxygen levels (about 20%) are vulnerable to reduction of in vitro O₂ to normal physiological levels (about 4-5% in vivo). This loss of functional properties upon reduction of ambient to physiological levels can be important for cell therapy and transplantation experiments. Cells cultured at ambient oxygen levels experience a loss of beta cell features upon transplantation into recipients where they immediately are exposed to physiological oxygen levels. The data indicate that while some of the transplanted pancreatic beta cells maintain a functional phenotype, many such cells lose essential functional features. This reduction in functionality is connected to a loss of the differentiated phenotype and identity of the pancreatic beta cells. Without intending to be bound by any particular theory, it is expected that the direct differentiation of hES cells into pancreatic beta cells, wherein the hES cells have been adapted to lower O₂ concentrations either during the pluripotent state or after generation of pancreatic progenitor cells, represents a step in developing a successful cell therapy product for the treatment of diabetes by maintaining a functional pancreatic beta cell phenotype upon transplantation (FIG. 17).

Brief Description of Experimental Data

Experimental results described herein provide the first proof-of-principle demonstration that functional definitive endoderm cells, posterior foregut-like progenitor cells, and pancreatic progenitor cells can be generated from fibroblast cells without going through a pluripotent state. Compared with other approaches for generating such cells, the compositions and methods described herein can provide sufficient numbers of functional progenitor cells for transplantation and other applications.

Because pluripotent stem cells are not generated and the overall culture time to obtain pancreatic cells is shortened, these methods are faster and potentially safer than methods that utilize iPSCs. In addition to validating and extending the lineage-specific reprogramming paradigm to generate cells of definitive endoderm and pancreatic lineages, several novel procedures illuminate to how lineage specification can be achieved, facilitated and maintained.

First, the methods and compositions include lineage specification signals (e.g., via TGFβ family members and WNT activators) at the beginning of iPSC-factor-mediated epigenetic activation to significantly improve the efficiency of direct endodermal reprogramming Such a process may transcriptionally program downstream lineage-specification signals to specifically re-direct iPSC-factor-mediated epigenome remodeling before pluripotency is established. Thus, in addition to the benefits of improved reprogramming efficiency, providing lineage-specification signals early also ensures that pluripotent cells are not generated.

Prolonging the first step to 7 or 8 days increases the total colony number while dramatically decreasing the percentage of Sox17 and Foxa2 double-positive colonies during expression of the pluripotency factors. The data provided herein indicate that temporary expression of reprogramming factors is sufficient and even beneficial for achieving successful conversion of cells to the endoderm lineage. Episomal expression of pluripotency factors allows such transient expression, without insertion and potential mutation of chromosomal DNA. Such transient expression of reprogramming factors may be achieved without integration of pluripotency expression cassettes into the genome of starting cells, to enhance the safety of this method (see, Kim, Kim et al. 2009; Zhou, Wu et al. 2009; Warren, Manos et al. 2010).

Secondly, the data described herein shows that while Pdx1 or Nkx6.1 single-positive cells could be readily generated from definitive endoderm cells, the cells so treated rarely co-express the other master pancreatic specification genes and consequently fail to mature into terminally differentiated, authentic pancreatic endocrine cells. To overcome this challenge, unique combinations of small molecules were identified to generate Pdx1⁺/Nkx6.1⁺ cells. For example, a combination of just four small molecules (retinoic acid, A83-01, LDE225 and pVc), in the absence of any growth factors used in other protocols (such as FGF10 and EGF), could not only effectively induce Pdx1⁺/Nkx6.1⁺ cells from definitive endoderm cells, but also increase the percentage of Pdx1⁺/Nkx6.1⁺ cells produced by about 11-fold. The definitive endodermal progenitor cells can rapidly be specified toward the posterior foregut state (cPF), illustrating efficient transdifferentiation of the fibroblasts towards the endodermal germ layer. Moreover, the posterior foregut-like progenitor cells can be greatly expanded without loss of their specific identity by culture in media that activates the WNT pathway and inhibits the TGFβ pathway while providing pro-proliferative growth factors EGF and bFGF. A somewhat unexpected finding was that not only could foregut-like progenitor cells be greatly expanded, but one could also expand pancreatic progenitor cells that were committed towards a pancreatic phenotype. The expansion of pancreatic progenitor cells by at least two hundred million fold involved the addition of a selective set of factors, including growth factors (e.g., bFGF and EGF) as well as a TGFβ receptor inhibitor (e.g., A83-1).

Thirdly, experiments described herein show that influencing the early steps of lineage induction can significantly impact later specification steps. To date, efforts to influence lineage induction to a particular stage of development or differentiation have mostly focused on the step immediately preceding the particular stage, while earlier steps were largely overlooked. For example, the search for small molecules that improve induction of Pdx1 pancreatic cells, MHC cardiac cells, or TH dopamine neurons had always focused on using definitive endoderm cells, cardiac precursor cells, or neural precursor cells, respectively, for screening. While this traditional approach is straightforward, the successful procedures described herein demonstrate that enhanced attention at other differentiation stages can have significant benefits. To further improve conversion to pancreatic cells, new small molecules were tested and evaluated during the first two steps of reprogramming toward definitive endoderm cells using expression of Pdx1 and Nkx6.1 as indicators of differentiation into pancreatic progenitor cells. For example, when used in early cell-induction steps two small molecules, Bix-01294 and pVc, were found to substantially increase the number or percentage of Pdx1⁺/Nkx6.1⁺ cells ultimately obtained. It should also be noted that treatment with Bix-01294 and pVc during the first two steps of reprogramming did not affect the numbers of Sox17/Foxa2 positive cells obtained at about day 12 of the process. These results demonstrate new strategies for improving the outcome of later differentiation stages in a step-wise cellular reprogramming and induction process by modifying earlier steps, an approach that until now has been largely overlooked.

Novel combinations of small molecules that promote pancreatic beta-cell maturation were also identified. For example, SB203580 and pVc strongly and synergistically increased the number of insulin⁺/Pdx1⁺ cells. Notch inhibitor Compound-E, Vitamin C, and the Ca²⁺ channel agonist BayK-8644 also improved the differentiation efficiency into pancreatic beta-like cells independently as well as in combination. Not only did these screenings reveal conditions that enable the reprogramming of fibroblasts into endodermal and pancreatic progenitor cells that can mature into glucose-responsive insulin-secreting beta cells in vitro and in vivo, those newly identified small molecules for each step also provide new chemical tools for further mechanistic studies.

The potential of the pancreatic progenitor cells generated as described herein was demonstrated in vivo. The in vitro differentiated beta-like cells exhibited a mature, functional beta cell phenotype as judged by their ability to secrete insulin in response to physiological levels of glucose as well as their co-expression of critical beta cell transcription factors. Compared with cells generated by previous conditions, the pancreatic progenitor cells generated by the advanced approach described herein can much more efficiently generate all three pancreatic lineages, including functional insulin secreting beta like cells, and ameliorate hyperglycemia in vivo. These results demonstrate the therapeutic benefits of the methods and compositions described herein.

Compositions

The invention also relates to compositions useful for generating definitive endoderm cells, posterior foregut-like progenitor cells, pancreatic precursor cells, and/or mature pancreatic beta cells. The compositions can be formulated as cell culture media with one or more of the compounds and agents described herein at concentrations sufficient to generate definitive endoderm cells, posterior foregut-like progenitor cells, pancreatic precursor cells, and/or pancreatic beta cells. Alternatively, the compounds and agents described herein can be present in concentrated or dry form within the compositions, so that the composition can conveniently be added to a cell culture medium to generate a cell culture medium with an appropriate concentration of the selected compounds and/or agents for generating definitive endoderm cells, posterior foregut-like progenitor cells, pancreatic precursor cells, and/or pancreatic beta cells.

Therefore, the invention relates to a first composition containing a TGFβ family member and a WNT activator. The first composition can contain the TGFβ family member and the WNT activator in an effective amount that is sufficient to generate a first cell population comprising definitive endoderm cells. The first composition can contain other factors. For example, the first composition can contain one or more growth factors (e.g., epidermal growth factor (EGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), or a combination thereof). The first composition can also contain a G9a histone methyltransferase inhibitor, 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, a histone demethylase inhibitor, a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor, an adenosine agonist, or a combination thereof. The first composition can include one or more of the agents or compounds listed above. Alternatively, the first compositions can contain two or more, or three or more, or four or more, or five or more, or six or more, or seven or more of these agents. In some embodiments, the first composition has less than ten of the agents listed above, or less than nine of the agents listed above.

For example, Activin A (a TGFβ family member) can be present in the compositions (useful e.g., for generating definitive endoderm cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 5 ng/ml to about 200 ng/ml, or from about 10 ng/ml to about 175 ng/ml, or from about 15 ng/ml to about 150 ng/ml, or from about 20 ng/ml to about 150 ng/ml, or from about 25 ng/ml to about 125 ng/ml, or from about 30 ng/ml to about 100 ng/ml, or from about 35 ng/ml to about 80 ng/ml, or from about 40 ng/ml to about 60 ng/ml, or about 50 ng/ml. Alternatively, the Activin A can be present in concentrated form, for example, for addition to a cell culture medium so that the cell culture medium contains Activin A at a desired concentration. For example, a concentrated composition can contain Activin A at a concentration that is about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate definitive endoderm cells.

Lithium chloride and/or CHIR99021 (WNT activators) can be present in the compositions (useful e.g., for generating definitive endoderm cells) at a variety of concentrations. For example, a WNT activator can be included at about 0.01 mM to about 10 mM, or from about 0.05 mM to about 9 mM, or from about 0.1 mM to about 8 mM, or from about 0.2 mM to about 7 mM, or from about 0.3 mM to about 6 mM, or from about 0.4 mM to about 5 mM, or from about 0.5 mM to about 3 mM, or about 1 mM. CHIR99021 can be present at 0.01 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 8 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 2 μM to about 4 μM. Alternatively, the WNT activators can be present in concentrated form, for example, for addition to a cell culture medium so that the cell culture medium contains lithium chloride at a desired concentration. For example, a concentrated composition can contain lithium chloride and/or CHIR99021 at a concentration that is about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate definitive endoderm cells.

Phospho-L-ascorbic acid or Vitamin C can be employed in the first composition (useful e.g., for generating definitive endoderm cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 1 μM to about 1000 μM, or from about 20 μM to about 700 μM, or from about 50 μM to about 500 μM, or from about 100 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 150 μM to about 350 μM, or from about 200 μM to about 325 μM, or from about 250 μM to about 310 μM, or about 280 μM. Alternatively, phospho-L-ascorbic acid or Vitamin C can be present in concentrated form, for example, for addition to a cell culture medium so that the cell culture medium contains phospho-L-ascorbic acid at a desired concentration. For example, a concentrated composition can contain phospho-L-ascorbic acid a concentration that is about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate definitive endoderm cells.

One or more G9a histone methyl-transferase inhibitors can be employed in the first composition (useful e.g., for generating definitive endoderm cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 0.05 μM to about 9 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 8 μM, or from about 0.2 μM to about 7 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 6 μM, or from about 0.4 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 3 μM, or about 1 μM. Alternatively, the G9a histone methyl-transferase inhibitor can be present in concentrated form, for example, for addition to a cell culture medium so that the cell culture medium contains the G9a histone methyl-transferase inhibitor at a desired concentration. For example, a concentrated composition can contain the G9a histone methyl-transferase inhibitor at a concentration that is about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate definitive endoderm cells.

One or more histone deacetylase inhibitors can be employed in the first composition (useful e.g., for generating definitive endoderm cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 1 micromolar to about 20 millimolar, or about 10 micromolar to about 15 millimolar, or about 25 micromolar to about 5 millimolar, or about 40 micromolar to about 1 millimolar, or about 60 micromolar to about 0.5 millimolar, or about 0.1 millimolar in a solution. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more HDAC inhibitors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate definitive endoderm cells.

One or more histone demethylase inhibitors can be employed in the first composition (useful e.g., for generating definitive endoderm cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, about 0.01 micromolar to about 20 micromolar, or about 0.05 micromolar to about 10 micromolar, or about 0.1 micromolar to about 5 micromolar, or about 0.5 micromolar to about 3 micromolar, or about 1 micromolar to about 3 micromolar, or about 1 micromolar in a solution. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more histone demethylase inhibitors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate definitive endoderm cells.

One or more DNA methyltransferase inhibitors can be employed in the first composition (useful e.g., for generating definitive endoderm cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 micromolar to about 20 micromolar, or about 0.03 micromolar to about 10 micromolar, or about 0.05 micromolar to about 5 micromolar, or about 0.1 micromolar to about 2 micromolar, or about 0.2 micromolar to about 1 micromolar, or about 0.5 micromolar in a solution. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more DNA methyltransferase inhibitors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate definitive endoderm cells.

One or more adenosine agonists can be employed in the first composition (useful e.g., for generating definitive endoderm cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 micromolar to about 20 micromolar, or about 0.03 micromolar to about 10 micromolar, or about 0.05 micromolar to about 5 micromolar, or about 0.1 micromolar to about 2 micromolar, or about 0.2 micromolar to about 1 micromolar, or about 0.5 micromolar in a solution. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more adenosine agonists at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate definitive endoderm cells.

The invention also relates to second compositions containing one or more TGFβ receptor inhibitors, hedgehog pathway inhibitors, retinoic acid receptor agonists, or combinations thereof. The second composition can contain other factors. For example, the second composition can also contain one or more growth factors, WNT activators, vitamins (e.g., vitamin C), Notch signaling inhibitors, BMP4 signaling inhibitors, or combinations thereof. Any of such factors can be included in the second composition in amounts sufficient to generate pancreatic progenitor cells from definitive endoderm cells.

One or more TGFβ receptor inhibitors can be employed in the second composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic progenitor cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 0.05 μM to about 9 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 8 μM, or from about 0.2 μM to about 7 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 6 μM, or from about 0.4 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 3 μM, or about 1 μM. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more TGFβ receptor inhibitors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic progenitor cells.

One or more hedgehog pathway inhibitors can be employed in the second composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic progenitor cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 0.05 μM to about 9 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 8 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 7 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 6 μM, or from about 0.75 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 3 μM, or about 2 μM. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more hedgehog pathway inhibitors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic progenitor cells.

One or more retinoic acid receptor agonists can be employed in the second composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic progenitor cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 0.05 μM to about 9 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 8 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 7 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 6 μM, or from about 0.75 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 3 μM, or about 2 μM. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more retinoic acid receptor agonists at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic progenitor cells.

One or more growth factors can be employed in the second composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic progenitor cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at least about 1 ng/ml, or at least about 2 ng/ml, or at least about 3 ng/ml, or at least about 5 ng/ml, or about 10 ng/ml. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more growth factors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic progenitor cells.

One or more WNT activators can be employed in the second composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic progenitor cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 micromolar to about 1 millimolar in a solution, or about 0.1 micromolar to about 100 micromolar in a solution, or about 0.5 micromolar to about 10 micromolar in a solution, or about 1 micromolar to about 5 micromolar in a solution. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more WNT activators at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic progenitor cells.

One or more vitamins (e.g., vitamin C or phospho-L-ascorbic acid) can be employed in the second composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic progenitor cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 1 μM to about 1000 μM, or from about 20 μM to about 700 μM, or from about 50 μM to about 500 μM, or from about 100 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 150 μM to about 350 μM, or from about 200 μM to about 325 μM, or from about 250 μM to about 310 μM, or about 280 μM. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more vitamins at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic progenitor cells.

One or more Notch signaling inhibitors can be employed in the second composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic progenitor cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.001 micromolar to about 200 micromolar, or about 0.01 micromolar to about 100 micromolar, or about 0.05 micromolar to about 10 micromolar, or about 0.1 micromolar in a solution. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more Notch signaling inhibitors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic progenitor cells.

One or more BMP4 signaling inhibitors can be employed in the second composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic progenitor cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.001 micromolar to about 200 micromolar, or about 0.01 micromolar to about 100 micromolar, or about 0.05 micromolar to about 10 micromolar, or about 0.1 micromolar in a solution. BMP4 signaling inhibitors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic progenitor cells.

The invention also relates to third compositions containing one or more TGFβ receptor inhibitors, Notch inhibitors, polyADP ribose synthetase inhibitors, or a combination thereof useful for generating pancreatic beta cells from pancreatic progenitor cells. The third composition can contain other factors. For example, the third composition can also contain one or more glucagon-like peptide-1 agonists, vitamins, p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase inhibitors, basement membrane proteins, adenylyl cyclase activators, glucocorticoid receptor agonists, Ca²⁺ channel agonists, or combinations thereof.

One or more TGFβ receptor inhibitors can be employed in the third composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic beta cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.01 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 0.05 μM to about 9 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 8 μM, or from about 0.2 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 3 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 2 μM, or from about 0.4 μM to about 1 μM, or about 0.5 μM. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more TGFβ receptor inhibitors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic beta cells.

One or more Notch inhibitors can be employed in the third composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic beta cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.001 micromolar to about 200 micromolar, or about 0.01 micromolar to about 100 micromolar, or about 0.05 micromolar to about 10 micromolar, or about 0.1 micromolar in a solution. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more Notch inhibitors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic beta cells.

One or more polyADP ribose synthetase inhibitors can be employed in the third composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic beta cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.1 millimolar to about 100 millimolar, or about 1 millimolar to about 50 millimolar, or about 3 millimolar to about 30 millimolar, or about 5 micromolar to about 15 millimolar, or about 10 millimolar in a solution. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more polyADP ribose synthetase inhibitors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic beta cells.

One or more glucagon-like peptide-1 agonists can be employed in the third composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic beta cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 5 ng/ml to about 200 ng/ml, or from about 10 ng/ml to about 175 ng/ml, or from about 15 ng/ml to about 150 ng/ml, or from about 20 ng/ml to about 150 ng/ml, or from about 25 ng/ml to about 125 ng/ml, or from about 30 ng/ml to about 100 ng/ml, or from about 35 ng/ml to about 80 ng/ml, or from about 40 ng/ml to about 60 ng/ml, or about 50 ng/ml. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more glucagon-like peptide-1 agonists at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic beta cells.

One or more vitamins (e.g., vitamin C and/or phospho L-ascorbic acid) can be employed in the third composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic beta cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 1 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 10 μM to about 80 μM, or from about 25 μM to about 75 μM, or from about 30 μM to about 70 μM, or from about 35 μM to about 65 μM, or from about 40 μM to about 60 μM, or from about 45 μM to about 55 μM, or about 50 μM. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more vitamins (e.g., vitamin C and/or phospho L-ascorbic acid) at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic beta cells.

One or more p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase inhibitors can be employed in the third composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic beta cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.1 μM to about 500 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 2 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 2.5 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 3 μM to about 25 μM, or from about 4 μM to about 10 μM, or about 5 μM. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase inhibitors at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic beta cells.

One or more basement membrane proteins can be employed in the third composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic beta cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.05 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 0.2 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 25 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 1.5 μM to about 4 μM, or about 2 μM. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more basement membrane proteins at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic beta cells.

One or more adenylyl cyclase activators can be employed in the third composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic beta cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about at about 0.1 μM to about 500 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 2 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 2.5 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 3 μM to about 25 μM, or from about 5 μM to about 15 μM, or about 10 μM. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more adenylyl cyclase activators at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic beta cells.

One or more glucocorticoid receptor agonists can be employed in the third composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic beta cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.1 μM to about 500 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 400 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 2 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 2.5 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 3 μM to about 25 μM, or from about 5 μM to about 15 μM, or about 10 μM. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more glucocorticoid receptor agonists at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic beta cells.

One or more Ca²⁺ channel agonists can be employed in the third composition (useful e.g., for generating pancreatic beta cells) at a variety of concentrations, for example, at about 0.05 μM to about 200 μM, or from about 0.1 μM to about 100 μM, or from about 0.2 μM to about 50 μM, or from about 0.3 μM to about 25 μM, or from about 0.5 μM to about 10 μM, or from about 1 μM to about 5 μM, or from about 1.5 μM to about 4 μM, or about 2 μM. For example, a concentrated composition can contain one or more Ca²⁺ channel agonists at concentrations that are about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed, for example, to generate pancreatic beta cells.

Other compositions useful for converting pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells to pancreatic beta-like cells include those employed during protocol 2. For example, one example of a protocol 2 composition is a composition that includes heparin, zinc salts, a TGF-f3 inhibitor (e.g., Alk5 inhibitor), a BMP4 signaling inhibitor (e.g., LDN-193189), a T3 thyroid hormone, a Notch Signaling Inhibitor (e.g., Compound E), a Ca²⁺ channel agonist (e.g. BayK-8644), vitamin C, and combinations thereof. Another example of a protocol 2 composition is one that includes heparin zinc salts, a TGF-β3 inhibitor (e.g., Alk5 inhibitor), a BMP4 signaling inhibitor (e.g., LDN-193189), a T3 thyroid hormone, cysteine, an anti-oxidant (e.g., vitamin E or a derivative thereof such as 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2 carboxylic acid), an Ax1 kinase inhibitor (e.g., R428), a Ca²⁺ channel agonist (e.g. BayK-8644), vitamin C, and combinations thereof to generate a second population of pancreatic beta-like cells.

The compositions can be cell culture media, or they can include components of a culture medium.

Kits

Also provided are kits for generating definitive endoderm cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or pancreatic cells. The kits can contain any of the compositions described herein and instructions for using the compositions for generating definitive endoderm cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or pancreatic cells. Each of the compositions can be separately packaged. Each composition can contain any of the compounds or proteins described herein at a concentration that is convenient for addition to a culture of cells. For example, compositions can be concentrated to about 10X, 50X, 100X, or 1000X of the concentration at which it would be employed to generate definitive endoderm cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or posterior foregut-like progenitor cells and/or pancreatic beta cells. The instructions can provide guidance for appropriate addition (dilution) of the compositions into a cell culture, and/or guidance on other culture conditions (e.g., appropriate cell culture media, an appropriate duration of exposure to the compositions, etc.). The instructions can also provide guidance on the selection of cells for generating definitive endoderm cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or posterior foregut-like progenitor cells and/or pancreatic cells. In addition, the instructions can provide information for testing and/or recognition of the generated definitive endoderm cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or posterior foregut-like progenitor cells and/or pancreatic cells.

The kits can also provide components and instructions for administering definitive endoderm cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or posterior foregut-like progenitor cells and/or pancreatic beta cells to mammalian subjects. The instructions can provide guidance on the numbers and the type(s) (phenotype) of cells to be administered. The instructions can also provide instructions for administration of definitive endoderm cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or posterior foregut-like progenitor cells and/or pancreatic beta cells by surgical implantation or by infusion. For example, the kits can provide diluents, pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, scalpels, syringes, catheters, bandages, antiseptics, and the like to permit administration of cells.

Mixtures

The definitive endoderm cells and/or posterior foregut-like progenitor cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or pancreatic cells can be present in any of the foregoing compositions. The definitive endoderm cells and/or posterior foregut-like progenitor cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or pancreatic cells can also be present in a therapeutically acceptable carrier such as saline, phosphate buffered saline, or other aqueous carrier. Such a combination of the compositions described herein, or a therapeutically acceptable carrier, with definitive endoderm cells and/or posterior foregut-like progenitor cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or pancreatic cells is called a mixture.

The mixtures can contain about 1 to about 10¹⁰ definitive endoderm cells and/or posterior foregut-like progenitor cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or pancreatic (e.g., beta) cells.

The definitive endoderm cells and/or posterior foregut-like progenitor cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or pancreatic cells generated as described herein can be isolated, separated, or purified from the composition, mixture or media in which they are generated. The definitive endoderm cells and/or posterior foregut-like progenitor cells and/or pancreatic precursor cells and/or pancreatic cells generated as described herein can be enriched or cultured to increase the proportion or numbers of desired cells in the population. Any such isolate, separation, purification, enrichment or culture is a mixture of the invention.

An isolating step can include providing the cells in the cell culture with a reagent which binds to a marker expressed in the desired cell type (e.g., definitive endoderm cells, pancreatic precursor cells and/or pancreatic cells) but which is not substantially expressed in other cells present in the cell culture. The reagent-bound cells can be separated from the non-reagent-bound cells by numerous methods. For example, an antibody against a marker that is selectively present on the desired cells can be provided to cells in a cell culture. Antibody-bound cells can then be separated from other cells in the culture by, for example, fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS), binding the antibody to a solid support or isolating appropriately tagged antibody in a magnetic field. In some embodiments, the antibody is released from the cells after the separation process.

As an alternative means of separation, at least some of the desired cells can be separated from at least some of the other cells in the culture by specifically fluorescently labeling the desired cells in culture and then separating the labeled cells from the unlabeled cells by FACS.

An enriched cell population of definitive endoderm cells, posterior foregut-like progenitor cells, pancreatic progenitor cells, and/or pancreatic beta cells produced, for example, by an isolating step can be substantially free of cells other than definitive endoderm cells, posterior foregut-like progenitor cells, pancreatic progenitor cells, and/or pancreatic beta cells. In other embodiments, the enriched cell populations can have at least about 50% to at least about 100% definitive endoderm cells, posterior foregut-like progenitor cells, pancreatic progenitor cells, and/or pancreatic beta cells. In still other embodiments, the enriched cell populations comprise from at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 96%, at least about 97%, at least about 99%, or at least about 100% definitive endoderm cells, posterior foregut-like progenitor cells, pancreatic progenitor cells, and/or pancreatic beta cells.

In some instances, the definitive endoderm cells, posterior foregut-like progenitor cells, pancreatic progenitor cells, and/or pancreatic beta cells are expanded, for example, by culturing the cells under conditions that permit cell division. For example, some embodiments include a culturing step that comprises plating a cell population on a surface such as a culture plate. In some embodiments, the cells are plated on a surface coated with a protein, poly-amino acid or carbohydrate (e.g., collagen, fibronectin, polylysine, poly-ornithine).

In other embodiments, the culturing step comprises incubating the cell population or portion thereof in an expansion medium comprising about 2% (v/v) serum. In some embodiments, the serum concentration can range from about 0% (v/v) to about 20% (v/v). For example, in some methods described herein, the serum concentration of the medium can be about 0.05% (v/v), about 0.1% (v/v), about 0.2% (v/v), about 0.3% (v/v), about 0.4% (v/v), about 0.5% (v/v), about 0.6% (v/v), about 0.7% (v/v), about 0.8% (v/v), about 0.9% (v/v), about 1% (v/v), about 2% (v/v), about 3% (v/v), about 4% (v/v), about 5% (v/v), about 6% (v/v), about 7% (v/v), about 8% (v/v), about 9% (v/v), about 10% (v/v), about 15% (v/v) or about 20% (v/v). In some embodiments, serum replacement is included in the medium, and no serum is employed.

Using the methods described herein, cell populations or cell cultures can be enriched in definitive endoderm, posterior foregut-like progenitor, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cell content by at least about 2-fold to about 1000-fold as compared to cell populations or cell cultures produced by the methods and compositions described herein. In some embodiments, definitive endoderm, posterior foregut-like progenitor, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells can be enriched by at least about 5-fold to about 500-fold as compared to cell populations or cell cultures produced by the methods and compositions described herein. In other embodiments, definitive endoderm, posterior foregut-like progenitor, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells can be enriched from at least about 10- to about 200-fold as compared to cell populations or cell cultures produced by the methods and compositions described herein. In still other embodiments, definitive endoderm, posterior foregut-like progenitor, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells can be enriched from at least about 20- to about 100-fold as compared to cell populations or cell cultures produced by the methods and compositions described herein. In yet other embodiments, definitive endoderm, posterior foregut-like progenitor, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells can be enriched from at least about 40- to about 80-fold as compared to cell populations or cell cultures produced by the methods and compositions described herein. In certain embodiments, definitive endoderm, posterior foregut-like progenitor, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells can be enriched from at least about 2- to about 20-fold as compared to cell populations or cell cultures produced by the methods and compositions described herein.

Some embodiments described herein relate to cell cultures or cell populations comprising from at least about 5% definitive endoderm, posterior foregut-like progenitor, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells to at least about 95% definitive endoderm, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells. In some embodiments the cell cultures or cell populations comprise mammalian cells. In preferred embodiments, the cell cultures or cell populations comprise human cells. For example, certain specific embodiments relate to cell cultures comprising human cells, wherein from at least about 5% to at least about 95% of the human cells are definitive endoderm, posterior foregut-like progenitor, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells. Other embodiments relate to cell cultures comprising human cells, wherein at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 15%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 30%, at least about 35%, at least about 40%, at least about 45%, at least about 50%, at least about 55%, at least about 60%, at least about 65%, at least about 70%, at least about 75%, at least about 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90% or greater than 90% of the human cells are definitive endoderm, posterior foregut-like progenitor, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells. In embodiments where the cell cultures or cell populations comprise human feeder cells, the above percentages are calculated without respect to the human feeder cells in the cell cultures or cell populations.

Therapy

Also described herein is a method for treating a patient suffering from, or at risk of developing, diabetes. The diabetes can, for example, be type 1, type 2, or type 1.5 diabetes. This method involves obtaining definitive endoderm, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells as described herein, and administering or implanting the cells into a mammalian subject.

The definitive endoderm, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells can be implanted as dispersed cells or formed into clusters. Alternatively, the definitive endoderm, pancreatic progenitor, and/or pancreatic beta cells can be infused into the subject, for example, via a hepatic portal vein. Alternatively, cells may be provided in biocompatible degradable polymeric supports, porous non-degradable devices or encapsulated to protect from host immune response. Cells may be implanted into an appropriate site in a subject. The implantation sites include, for example, the liver, natural pancreas, renal subcapsular space, omentum, peritoneum, subserosal space, intestine, stomach, or a subcutaneous pocket.

The amount of cells used in implantation depends on a number of various factors including the subject's condition and response to the therapy, and can be determined by one skilled in the art. For example, the number of cells administered can range from about 1000 to about 10¹⁰.

In one aspect, this invention provides a method for treating a patient suffering from, or at risk of developing diabetes. This method involves culturing a selected cell population, differentiating or redirecting the cultured cells in vitro into a definitive endoderm lineage to generate a first cell population containing definitive endoderm cells, differentiating the first cell population into a second population containing pancreatic progenitor cells and administering the second population of cells to a subject. In some instances pancreatic progenitor cells are enriched within the second population or purified from the second population of cells to generate a third population of cells that is substantially free of non-pancreatic cells.

The cells to be administered can be incorporated into a three-dimensional support. The cells can be maintained in vitro on this support prior to implantation into the subject. Alternatively, the support containing the cells can be directly implanted in the subject without additional in vitro culturing. The support can optionally be incorporated with at least one pharmaceutical agent that facilitates the survival and function of the transplanted cells.

Support materials suitable for use include tissue templates, conduits, barriers, and reservoirs useful for tissue repair. In particular, synthetic and natural materials in the form of foams, sponges, gels, hydrogels, textiles, and nonwoven structures, which have been used in vitro and in vivo to reconstruct or regenerate biological tissue, as well as to deliver chemotactic agents for inducing tissue growth, are suitable for use in practicing the methods described herein. See, for example, the materials disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,770,417, 6,022,743, 5,567,612, 5,759,830, 6,626,950, 6,534,084, 6,306,424, 6,365,149, 6,599,323, 6,656,488, U.S. Published Application 2004/0062753 A1, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,557,264 and 6,333,029, each of which is specifically incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

The mammalian subject can be a human patient, a domestic animal, or a laboratory animal.

Definitions

As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, a reference to “a compound,” “a cell,” “a nucleic acid” or “a polypeptide” includes a plurality of such compounds, cells, nucleic acids or polypeptides (for example, a solution of cells, nucleic acids or polypeptides, a suspension of cells, or a series of compound, cell, nucleic acid or polypeptide preparations), and so forth.

The terms “diabetes” and “diabetes mellitus” are used interchangeably herein. The World Health Organization indicates that diabetes involves a fasting plasma glucose concentration of 7.0 mmol/1 (126 mg/dl) and above for Diabetes Mellitus (whole blood 6.1 mmol/1 or 110 mg/dl), or 2-hour glucose level 11.1 mmol/L or higher (200 mg/dL or higher). Other values suggestive of or indicating high risk for Diabetes Mellitus include elevated arterial pressure 140/90 mm Hg or higher; elevated plasma triglycerides (1.7 mmol/L; 150 mg/dL) and/or low HDL-cholesterol (less than 0.9 mmol/L, 35 mg/dl for men; less than 1.0 mmol/L, 39 mg/dL women); central obesity (males: waist to hip ratio higher than 0.90; females: waist to hip ratio higher than 0.85) and/or body mass index exceeding 30 kg/m2; microalbuminuria, where the urinary albumin excretion rate 20 μg/min or higher, or albumin to creatinine ratio 30 mg/g or higher). The term diabetes encompasses all forms of diabetes, including Type I, Type II and Type 1.5.

As used herein, the term “treating” and “treatment” refers to administering to a subject an effective amount of a composition so that the recipient has a reduction in at least one symptom of the disease or an improvement in the disease, for example, beneficial or desired clinical results. For purposes of this invention, beneficial or desired clinical results include, but are not limited to, alleviation of one or more symptoms, diminishment of extent of disease, stabilized (i.e., not worsening) state of disease, delay or slowing of disease progression, amelioration or palliation of the disease state, and remission (whether partial or total), whether detectable or undetectable. Treating can refer to prolonging survival as compared to expected survival if not receiving treatment. Thus, one of skill in the art realizes that a treatment may improve the disease condition, but may not be a complete cure for the disease. The term “treatment” includes prophylaxis. Treatment is “effective” if the progression of a disease is reduced or halted. “Treatment” can also mean prolonging survival as compared to expected survival if not receiving treatment. Those in need of treatment include those already diagnosed with a condition (e.g., diabetes), as well as those likely to develop a condition due to genetic susceptibility or other factors such as weight, diet, and health.

The term “episomal” refers to the extra-chromosomal state of an expression cassette, plasmid or vector in a cell. Episomal expression cassettes, plasmids or vectors are nucleic acid molecules that are not part of the chromosomal DNA and replicate independently thereof.

An “Oct polypeptide” refers to any of the naturally-occurring members of Octamer family of transcription factors, or variants thereof that maintain transcription factor activity, similar (within at least 50%, 80%, or 90% activity) compared to the closest related naturally occurring family member, or polypeptides comprising at least the DNA-binding domain of the naturally occurring family member, and can further comprise a transcriptional activation domain. Exemplary Oct polypeptides include, Oct-1, Oct-2, Oct-3/4, Oct-6, Oct-7, Oct-8, Oct-9, and Oct-11. e.g., Oct3/4 (referred to herein as “Oct4”) contains the POU domain, a 150 amino acid sequence conserved among Pit-1, Oct-1, Oct-2, and uric-86. See, Ryan, A. K. & Rosenfeld, M. G. Genes Dev. 11, 1207-1225 (1997). In some embodiments, variants have at least 85%, 90%, or 95% amino acid sequence identity across their whole sequence compared to a naturally occurring Oct polypeptide family member such as to those listed above or such as listed in Genbank accession number NP-002692.2 (human Oct4) or NP-038661.1 (mouse Oct4). Oct polypeptides (e.g., Oct3/4) can be from human, mouse, rat, bovine, porcine, or other animals. Generally, the same species of protein will be used with the species of cells being manipulated. The Oct polypeptide(s) can be a pluripotency factor.

A “Klf polypeptide” refers to any of the naturally-occurring members of the family of Krüppel-like factors (Klfs), zinc-finger proteins that contain amino acid sequences similar to those of the Drosophila embryonic pattern regulator Krüppel, or variants of the naturally-occurring members that maintain transcription factor activity similar (within at least 50%, 80%, or 90% activity) compared to the closest related naturally occurring family member, or polypeptides comprising at least the DNA-binding domain of the naturally occurring family member, and can further comprise a transcriptional activation domain. See, Dang, D. T., Pevsner, J. & Yang, V. W. Cell Biol. 32, 1103-1121 (2000). Exemplary Klf family members include, Klf1, Klf2, Klf3, Klf-4, Klf5, Klf6, Klf7, Klf8, Klf9, Klf10, Klf11, Klf12, Klf13, Klf14, Klf15, Klf16, and Klf17. Klf2 and Klf-4 were found to be factors capable of generating iPS cells in mice, and related genes Klf1 and Klf5 did as well, although with reduced efficiency. See, Nakagawa, et al., Nature Biotechnology 26:101-106 (2007). In some embodiments, variants have at least 85%, 90%, or 95% amino acid sequence identity across their whole sequence compared to a naturally occurring Klf polypeptide family member such as to those listed above or such as listed in Genbank accession number CAX16088 (mouse Klf4) or CAX14962 (human Klf4). Klf polypeptides (e.g., Klf1, Klf4, and Klf5) can be from human, mouse, rat, bovine, porcine, or other animals. Generally, the same species of protein will be used with the species of cells being manipulated. To the extent a Klf polypeptide is described herein, it can be replaced with an estrogen-related receptor beta (Essrb) polypeptide. Thus, it is intended that for each Klf polypeptide embodiment described herein, a corresponding embodiment using Essrb in the place of a Klf4 polypeptide is equally described. The Klf polypeptide(s) can be a pluripotency factor.

A “Myc polypeptide” refers any of the naturally-occurring members of the Myc family (see, e.g., Adhikary, S. & Eilers, M. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 6:635-645 (2005)), or variants thereof that maintain transcription factor activity similar (within at least 50%, 80%, or 90% activity) compared to the closest related naturally occurring family member, or polypeptides comprising at least the DNA-binding domain of the naturally occurring family member, and can further comprise a transcriptional activation domain. Exemplary Myc polypeptides include, e.g., c-Myc, N-Myc and L-Myc. In some embodiments, variants have at least 85%, 90%, or 95% amino acid sequence identity across their whole sequence compared to a naturally occurring Myc polypeptide family member, such as to those listed above or such as listed in Genbank accession number CAA25015 (human Myc). Myc polypeptides (e.g., c-Myc) can be from human, mouse, rat, bovine, porcine, or other animals. Generally, the same species of protein will be used with the species of cells being manipulated. The Myc polypeptide(s) can be a pluripotency factor.

A “Sox polypeptide” refers to any of the naturally-occurring members of the SRY-related HMG-box (Sox) transcription factors, characterized by the presence of the high-mobility group (HMG) domain, or variants thereof that maintain transcription factor activity similar (within at least 50%, 80%, or 90% activity) compared to the closest related naturally occurring family member, or polypeptides comprising at least the DNA-binding domain of the naturally occurring family member, and can further comprise a transcriptional activation domain. See, e.g., Dang, D. T., et al., Int. J. Biochem Cell Biol. 32:1103-1121 (2000). Exemplary Sox polypeptides include, e.g., Sox1, Sox-2, Sox3, Sox4, Sox5, Sox6, Sox7, Sox8, Sox9, Sox10, Sox11, Sox12, Sox13, Sox14, Sox15, Sox17, Sox18, Sox-21, and Sox30. Sox1 has been shown to yield iPS cells with a similar efficiency as Sox2, and genes Sox3, Sox15, and Sox18 have also been shown to generate iPS cells, although with somewhat less efficiency than Sox2. See, Nakagawa, et al., Nature Biotechnology 26:101-106 (2007). In some embodiments, variants have at least 85%, 90%, or 95% amino acid sequence identity across their whole sequence compared to a naturally occurring Sox polypeptide family member such as to those listed above or such as listed in Genbank accession number CAA83435 (human Sox2). Sox polypeptides (e.g., Sox1, Sox2, Sox3, Sox15, or Sox18) can be from human, mouse, rat, bovine, porcine, or other animals Generally, the same species of protein will be used with the species of cells being manipulated. The Sox polypeptide(s) can be a pluripotency factor.

“H3K9” refers to histone H3 lysine 9. H3K9 modifications associated with gene activity include H3K9 acetylation and H3K9 modifications associated with heterochromatin, include H3K9 di-methylation or tri-methylation. See, e.g., Kubicek, et al., Mol. Cell 473-481 (2007).

A “p53 inhibitor” refers to a molecule that reduces p53 activity and expression. Such a p53 inhibitor can reduce the activity of a p53 protein, the translation of the p53 protein, the expression of a p53 gene, or a combination thereof. Examples of a p53 inhibitor include, but are not limited to nucleic acids, proteins, dominant negative proteins, peptides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, lipids, phospholipids, glycolipids, monomers, polymers, small molecules and organic compounds. The p53 inhibitor can be a polynucleotide such as a nucleic acid segment operably linked to a promoter. In some embodiments, the p53 inhibitor is a short hairpin RNA. In other embodiments, the p53 inhibitor is a small interfering RNA. The p53 inhibitor may be a protein. In some embodiments, the p53 inhibitor is a dominant negative protein. Information on such p53 inhibitors is available, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 8,530,238 by Yamanka et al.; Yu et al., Human induced pluripotent stem cells free of vector and transgene sequences, Science 324(5928): 797-801 (2009); United States Patent Application 20120076762, and Okita et al., A more efficient method to generate integration-free human iPS cells, Nature Methods 8: 409-412 (2011), the contents of which are specifically incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. The “p53 shRNA” can, for example, be a shRNA against p53 with the sequence described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,530,238 by Yamanka et al. or Hong et al. (Nature. 460: 1132-1135 (2009)), both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

“NANOG” as referred to herein includes any of the naturally-occurring forms of the Nanog transcription factor, or variants thereof that maintain NANOG transcription factor activity (e.g. with at least 50%, 80%, 90% or 100% activity of the activity of natural NANOG). In some embodiments, variants have at least 90% or 95% amino acid sequence identity across their whole sequence compared to the naturally occurring NANOG polypeptide. For example, the NANOG protein can have the sequence identified by the NCBI reference gi:153945816.

The terms “transfection” or “transfected” are defined by a process of introducing nucleic acid molecules into a cell by non-viral and viral-based methods. The nucleic acid molecules may be gene sequences encoding complete proteins or functional portions thereof.

The term “pluripotent” or “pluripotency” refers to cells with the ability to give rise to progeny cells that can undergo differentiation, under the appropriate conditions, into cell types that collectively demonstrate characteristics associated with cell lineages from all of the three germinal layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm). Pluripotent stem cells can contribute to all embryonic derived tissues of a prenatal, postnatal or adult animal A standard art-accepted test, such as the ability to form a teratoma in 8-12 week old SCID mice, can be used to establish the pluripotency of a cell population, however identification of various pluripotent stem cell characteristics can also be used to detect pluripotent cells.

“Pluripotent stem cell characteristics” refer to characteristics of a cell that distinguish pluripotent stem cells from other cells. The ability to give rise to progeny that can undergo differentiation, under the appropriate conditions, into cell types that collectively demonstrate characteristics associated with cell lineages from all of the three germinal layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm) is a pluripotent stem cell characteristic. Expression or non-expression of certain combinations of molecular markers are also pluripotent stem cell characteristics. For example, human pluripotent stem cells express at least some, and in some embodiments, all of the markers from the following non-limiting list: SSEA-3, SSEA-4, TRA-1-60, TRA-1-81, TRA-2-49/6E, ALP, Sox2, E-cadherin, UTF-1, Oct4, Rex1, and Nanog. Cell morphologies associated with pluripotent stem cells are also pluripotent stem cell characteristics.

As used herein, “multipotent” or “multipotent cell” refers to a cell type that can give rise to a limited number of other particular cell types.

As used herein, “non-pluripotent cells” refer to mammalian cells that are not pluripotent cells. Examples of such cells include differentiated cells as well as progenitor cells. Examples of differentiated cells include, but are not limited to, cells from a tissue selected from bone marrow, skin, skeletal muscle, fat tissue and peripheral blood. Exemplary cell types include, but are not limited to, fibroblasts, epidermal cells, lymphocytes, hepatocytes, myoblasts, neurons, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and T-cells.

Where an individual is to be treated with definitive endoderm cells, pancreatic progenitor cells, and/or pancreatic beta cells, the individual's own non-pluripotent cells can be used to generate definitive endoderm cells, pancreatic progenitor cells, and/or pancreatic beta cells according to the methods of the invention.

Mammalian cells can be from humans or non-human mammals. Exemplary non-human mammals include, but are not limited to, mice, rats, cats, dogs, rabbits, guinea pigs, hamsters, sheep, pigs, horses, bovines, and non-human primates (e.g., chimpanzees, macaques, and apes).

“Inhibitors,” “activators,” and “modulators” of expression or of activity are used to refer to inhibitory, activating, or modulating molecules, respectively, identified using in vitro and in vivo assays for expression or activity of a described target protein (or encoding polynucleotide), e.g., ligands, agonists, antagonists, and their homologs and mimetics. The term “modulator” includes inhibitors and activators. Inhibitors are agents that, e.g., inhibit expression or bind to, partially or totally block stimulation or protease inhibitor activity, reduce, decrease, prevent, delay activation, inactivate, desensitize, or down regulate the activity of the described target protein, e.g., antagonists. Activators are agents that, e.g., induce or activate the expression of a described target protein or bind to, stimulate, increase, open, activate, facilitate, enhance activation or protease inhibitor activity, sensitize or up regulate the activity of described target protein (or encoding polynucleotide), e.g., agonists. Modulators include naturally occurring and synthetic ligands, antagonists and agonists (e.g., small chemical molecules, antibodies and the like that function as either agonists or antagonists). Such assays for inhibitors and activators include, e.g., applying putative modulator compounds to cells expressing the described target protein and then determining the functional effects on the described target protein activity, as described above. Samples or assays comprising described target protein that are treated with a potential activator, inhibitor, or modulator are compared to control samples without the inhibitor, activator, or modulator to examine the extent of effect. Control samples (untreated with modulators) are assigned a relative activity value of 100%. Inhibition of a described target protein is achieved when the activity value relative to the control is about 80%, optionally 50% or 25, 10%, 5% or 1%. Activation of the described target protein is achieved when the activity value relative to the control is 110%, optionally 150%, optionally 200, 300%, 400%, 500%, or 1000-3000% or more higher.

The following statements are intended to describe and summarize various embodiments of the invention according to the foregoing description in the specification.

Statements:

-   -   1. A composition comprising a TGFβ family member, a WNT         activator, or a combination thereof.     -   2. The composition of statement 1, further comprising         2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid or vitamin C.     -   3. The composition of statement 1 or 2, wherein the WNT         activator is a lithium salt, CHIR99021, 1-azakenpaullone,         AR-A014418, indirubin-3′-monoxime, 5-Iodo-indirubin-3′-monoxime,         kenpaullone, SB-415286, SB-216763,         2-anilino-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole),         (Z)-5-(2,3-Memylenedioxyphenyl)imidazolidine-2,4-dione, TWS119,         CHIR98014, SB415286, Tideglusib, LY2090314, or a combination         thereof     -   4. The composition of any of statements 1-3, wherein the TGFβ         family member is a factor of an Activin/Inhibin subfamily, a         decapentaplegic-Vg-related (DVR) related subfamily (that         includes bone morphogenetic proteins and growth differentiation         factors), and/or a TGF-β subfamily.     -   5. The composition of any of statements 1-4, wherein the TGFβ         family member is Activin A.     -   6. The composition of any of statements 1-5, further comprising         a G9a histone methyltransferase inhibitor selected from the         group consisting of Bix-01294, chaetocin, 3-deazaneplanocin         hydrochloride, UNC 0224, UNC 0638, UNC 0646, and any combination         thereof     -   7. The composition of any of statements 1-6, further comprising         a histone deacetylase inhibitor selected from the group         consisting of sodium butyrate, phenyl butyrate, butyrate,         Suberoylanilide Hydroxamic Acid (SAHA), BML-210, Depudecin, HC         Toxin, Scriptaid, Phenylbutyrate, Valproic Acid, Suramin,         Trichostatin A, APHA Compound 8, Apicidin, Trapoxin B,         Chlamydocin, Depsipeptide, CI-994, MS-27-275, MGCD0103,         NVP-LAQ-824, CBHA, JNJ16241199, Tubacin, A-161906, Proxamide,         Oxamflatin, 3C1-UCHA, AOE, CHAP31, or any combination thereof.     -   8. The composition of any of statements 1-7, further comprising         a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor selected from the group         consisting of RG108, 5-azacitidine, 5-aza-T-deoxycytidine,         decitabine, doxorubicin, EGCG ((−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate),         zebularine, and any combination thereof     -   9. The composition of any of statements 1-8, further comprising         an adenosine receptor agonist selected from the group consisting         of 5′-N-ethylcarbox-amido-adenosine (NECA),         8-butylamino-adenosine,         2-[p-(2-carboxyethyl)phenethyl-amino]-5′-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine         (CGS-2 1680), HENECA,         4-(3-[6-amino-9-(5-ethylcarbamoyl-3,4-dihydroxy-tetrahydro-furan-2-yl)-9H-purin-2-yl]-prop-2-ynyl)-cyclohexanecarboxylic         acid methyl ester), N⁶-cyclopentyladenosine (CPA),         2-chloro-N⁶-cyclopentyl-adenosine (CCPA),         (2S)—N6-[2-endo-Norbornyl]adenosine ((S)-ENBA),         N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-[4-[[2-[4-[[9-[(2R,3R,4S,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)oxolan-2-yl]purin-6-yl]amino]phenyl]acetyl]amino]phenyl]acetamide         hydrate (ADAC), AMP579, NNC-21-0136, GR79236, CVT-510         (Tecadenoson), SDZ WAG 994, Selodenoson, and any combination         thereof.     -   10. The composition of any of statements 1-9, wherein the         composition is a cell culture medium or comprises components for         a cell culture medium.     -   11. The composition of any of statements 1-10, wherein the TGFβ         family member, the WNT activator, the 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid,         the vitamin C, G9a histone methyltransferase inhibitor, histone         deacetylase inhibitor, DNA methyltransferase inhibitor,         adenosine receptor agonist, or a combination thereof, is in an         amount sufficient to generate definitive endodermal cells from         mammalian cells that transiently express pluripotency factors.     -   12. A mixture comprising the composition of any of statements         1-11, and a selected starting mammalian cell population.     -   13. The mixture of statement 12, wherein the mammalian cell         population transiently expresses at least one pluripotency         factor while being incubated in the composition.     -   14. The mixture of statement 12 or 13, wherein the pluripotency         factor comprises OCT4, KLF4, SOX2, or a combination thereof.     -   15. The mixture of statement 14, wherein the pluripotency         further comprises c-MYC, p53 shRNA, or a combination thereof.     -   16. The mixture of any of statements 12-15, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is non-pluripotent.     -   17. The mixture of any of statements 12-16, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population comprises non-pluripotent fibroblasts,         epidermal cells, lymphocytes, hepatocytes, myoblasts, neurons,         osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and T-cells.     -   18. The mixture of any of statements 12-17, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population comprises partially and/or fully         differentiated cells of epithelial cell lineage, hematopoietic         lineage, endothelial cell lineage, muscle cell lineage, neural         cell lineage, or any combinations thereof.     -   19. The mixture of any of statements 12-18, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is from a non-pluripotent mammalian         cell population previously contacted with one or more         pluripotency factors or pluripotency inducing agents, or wherein         the non-pluripotent mammalian cell population is induced to         express one or more pluripotency factors.     -   20. The mixture of any of statements 12-19, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population comprises pluripotent stem cells.     -   21. The mixture of any of statements 12-20, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population does not express detectable amounts of         NANOG.     -   22. The mixture of any of statements 12-21, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is an isolated mammalian cell         population.     -   23. The mixture of any of statements 12-22, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is an isolated allogeneic mammalian         cell population.     -   24. The mixture of any of statements 12-23, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is an autologous mammalian cell         population isolated from a patient.     -   25. The mixture of any of statements 12-24, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is contacted with the composition for         about 4 days to about 28 days.     -   26. The mixture of any of statements 12-25, wherein a portion of         the starting mammalian cell population is converted into         definitive endodermal cells after about 7 days, or after about         10 days, or after about 12 days, or after about 14 days, or         after about 16 days, or after about 18 days, or after about 20         days of contact with the composition.     -   27. The mixture of any of statements 12-26, wherein a portion of         the starting mammalian cell population express Sox17, Foxa2,         Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a         combination thereof, after about 7 days, or after about 10 days,         or after about 12 days, or after about 14 days, or after about         16 days, or after about 18 days, or after about 20 days of         contact with the composition.     -   28. The mixture of any of statements 12-27, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population and cells thereof that convert into         definitive endodermal cells do not express detectable levels of         NANOG.     -   29. A composition comprising a TGFβ receptor inhibitor, a         hedgehog pathway inhibitor, and a retinoic acid receptor         agonist.     -   30. The composition of statement 29, further comprising         epidermal growth factor (EGF), basic fibroblast growth factor         (bFGF), fibroblast growth factor 7 (FGF7), fibroblast growth         factor 10 (FGF10), or a combination thereof     -   31. The composition of statement 29 or 30, further comprising a         WNT activator, 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid, vitamin C, a Notch         signaling inhibitor, a BMP4 signaling inhibitor, or a         combination thereof     -   32. The composition of any of statements 29-31, wherein the TGFβ         receptor inhibitor, the hedgehog pathway inhibitor, the retinoic         acid receptor agonist, the WNT activator, the         2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid, the vitamin C, the Notch signaling         inhibitor, the BMP4 signaling inhibitor, or any combination         thereof, is in an amount sufficient to generate pancreatic         progenitor cells from mammalian cells that express Sox17, Foxa2,         Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a         combination thereof.     -   33. The composition of any of statements 29-32, wherein the TGFβ         receptor inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of         A83-01, SB431542, SB 431542, SJN 2511, D 4476, LY 364947,         SB505124, SB 525334, SD 208, LDN-193189, and any combination         thereof     -   34. The composition of any of statements 29-33, wherein the         hedgehog pathway inhibitor is selected from the group consisting         of LDE 225, cyclopamine, MK-4101, GDC-0449, XL-139 (BMS-833923),         PF-04449913, robotnikinin, Cur-61414 (G-024856), and any         combination thereof     -   35. The composition of any of statements 29-34, wherein the         retinoic acid receptor agonist is selected from the group         consisting of retinoic acid, 9-cis-retinoic acid, honokiol,         magnolol Am80, AM580, TTNPB, AC55649, and any combination         thereof.     -   36. The composition of any of statements 29-35, wherein the WNT         activator is a lithium salt, CHIR99021, 1-azakenpaullone,         AR-A014418, indirubin-3′-monoxime, 5-Iodo-indirubin-3′-monoxime,         kenpaullone, SB-415286, SB-216763,         2-anilino-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole),         (Z)-5-(2,3-Memylenedioxyphenyl)imidazolidine-2,4-dione, TWS119,         CHIR98014, SB415286, Tideglusib, LY2090314, or a combination         thereof.     -   37. The composition of any of statements 29-36, wherein the         Notch signaling inhibitor is Compound E, R04929097, DAPT         (GSI-IX), Gamma-Secretase Inhibitor I (Z-Leu-Leu-Nle-CHO where         Nle is Norleucine), Gamma-Secretase Inhibitor II, or any         combination thereof.     -   38. The composition of any of statements 29-37, wherein the BMP4         signaling inhibitor is noggin, chordin, CeM, DAN, Gremlin,         K02288, LDN-193189, or any combination thereof.     -   39. The composition of any of statements 29-38, wherein the         composition is a cell culture medium or comprises components for         a cell culture medium.     -   40. A mixture comprising the composition of any of statements         29-39, and a selected mammalian cell population.     -   41. The mixture of statement 40, wherein the selected mammalian         cell population comprises cells that express Sox17, Foxa2,         Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a         combination thereof.     -   42. The mixture of statement 40 or 41, wherein the selected         mammalian cell population comprises at least 5%, or at least         10%, or at least 12%, or at least 15%, or at least 25%, or at         least 50%, or at least 60%, or at least 70%, or at least 80%, or         at least 90%, or at least 95% cells that express Sox17, Foxa2,         Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a         combination thereof.     -   43. The mixture of any of statements 40-43, wherein the selected         mammalian cell population is formed from a nonpluripotent cell         population or a stem cell population redirected to express         Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4         (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof     -   44. The mixture of any of statements 40-43, wherein the selected         mammalian cell population is formed from cells contacted with a         first composition comprising a TGFβ family member, a WNT         activator, or a combination thereof     -   45. The mixture of statement 44, wherein the first composition         further comprises 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid or vitamin C.     -   46. The mixture of statement 44 or 45, wherein the first         composition has the TGFβ family member, the WNT activator, the         2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid, the vitamin C, or a combination         thereof, in an amount sufficient to generate definitive         endodermal cells.     -   47. The mixture of any of statements 40-46, wherein when         initially mixed with the composition, cells in the selected         mammalian cell population do not express Rex1, Nanog, or a         combination thereof     -   48. The mixture of any of statements 40-47, wherein a portion of         the selected mammalian cell population is converted into         pancreatic progenitor cells after 4 hours, or after about 8         hours, or after about 12 hours, or after about 1 day, or after         about 2 days, or after about 3 days, or after about 4 days, or         after about 5 days, or after about 6 days of contact with the         composition.     -   49. The mixture of any of statements 40-48, wherein after mixing         the selected mammalian cell population with the composition for         at least one day, cells in the selected mammalian cell         population express Pdx1, Nkx6.1, or a combination thereof.     -   50. The mixture of any of statements 40-49, wherein after mixing         the selected mammalian cell population with the composition for         2 or more days, cells in the selected mammalian cell population         express Pdx1, Nkx6.1, Pax6, Hnf6, or a combination thereof     -   51. The mixture of any of statements 40-50, wherein a portion of         the selected mammalian cell population is converted into         pancreatic progenitor cells after 4 hours, or after about 8         hours, or after about 12 hours, or after about 1 day, or after         about 2 days, or after about 3 days, or after about 4 days, or         after about 5 days, or after about 6 days of contact with the         composition.     -   52. The mixture of any of statements 40-51, wherein after mixing         the selected mammalian cell population with the composition for         2 or more days, at least 5%, or at least about 10%, or at least         about 12%, or at least about 16%, or at least about 17%, or at         least about 20%, or at least about 25% of cells in the selected         mammalian cell population express Pdx1, Nkx6.1, Pax6, Hnf6, or a         combination thereof     -   53. A method comprising, contacting a selected starting         mammalian cell population with a composition comprising a TGFβ         family member, a WNT activator, or a combination thereof     -   54. The method of statement 53, wherein the composition further         comprises 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid or vitamin C.     -   55. The method of statement 53 or 54, wherein the WNT activator         is a lithium salt, CHIR99021, 1-azakenpaullone, AR-A014418,         indirubin-3′-monoxime, 5-Iodo-indirubin-3′-monoxime,         kenpaullone, SB-415286, SB-216763,         2-anilino-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole),         (Z)-5-(2,3-Memylenedioxyphenyl)imidazolidine-2,4-dione, TWS119,         CHIR98014, SB415286, Tideglusib, LY2090314, or a combination         thereof     -   56. The method of any of statements 53-55, wherein the TGFβ         family member is a factor of an Activin/Inhibin subfamily, a         decapentaplegic-Vg-related (DVR) related subfamily (that         includes bone morphogenetic proteins and growth differentiation         factors), and/or a TGF-β subfamily.     -   57. The method of any of statements 53-56, wherein the TGFβ         family member is Activin A.     -   58. The method of any of statements 53-57, wherein the         composition further comprises a G9a histone methyltransferase         inhibitor selected from the group consisting of Bix-01294,         chaetocin, 3-deazaneplanocin hydrochloride, UNC 0224, UNC 0638,         UNC 0646, and any combination thereof     -   59. The method of any of statements 53-58, wherein the         composition further comprises a histone deacetylase inhibitor         selected from the group consisting of sodium butyrate, phenyl         butyrate, butyrate, Suberoylanilide Hydroxamic Acid (SAHA),         BML-210, Depudecin, HC Toxin, Scriptaid, Phenylbutyrate,         Valproic Acid, Suramin, Trichostatin A, APHA Compound 8,         Apicidin, Trapoxin B, Chlamydocin, Depsipeptide, CI-994,         MS-27-275, MGCD0103, NVP-LAQ-824, CBHA, JNJ16241199, Tubacin,         A-161906, Proxamide, Oxamflatin, 3Cl-UCHA, AOE, CHAP31, or any         combination thereof     -   60. The method of any of statements 53-59, wherein the         composition further comprises a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor         selected from the group consisting of RG108, 5-azacitidine,         5-aza-T-deoxycytidine, decitabine, doxorubicin, EGCG         ((−)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate, zebularine, and any combination         thereof     -   61. The method of any of statements 53-60, wherein the         composition further comprises an adenosine receptor agonist         selected from the group consisting of         5′-N-ethylcarbox-amido-adenosine (NECA), 8-butylamino-adenosine,         2-[p-(2-carboxyethyl)phenethyl-amino]-5′-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine         (CGS-2 1680), HENECA,         4-(3-[6-amino-9-(5-ethylcarbamoyl-3,4-dihydroxy-tetrahydro-furan-2-yl)-9H-purin-2-yl]-prop-2-ynyl)-cyclohexanecarboxylic         acid methyl ester), N⁶-cyclopentyladenosine (CPA),         2-chloro-N⁶-cyclopentyl-adenosine (CCPA),         (2S)—N6-[2-endo-Norbornyl]adenosine ((S)-ENBA),         N-(2-aminoethyl)-2-[4-[[2-[4-[[9-[(2R,3R,4S,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)oxolan-2-yl]purin-6-yl]amino]phenyl]acetyl]amino]phenyl]acetamide         hydrate (ADAC), AMP579, NNC-21-0136, GR79236, CVT-510         (Tecadenoson), SDZ WAG 994, Selodenoson, and any combination         thereof.     -   62. The method of any of statements 53-61, wherein the TGFβ         family member, the WNT activator, the 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid,         the vitamin C, G9a histone methyltransferase inhibitor, histone         deacetylase inhibitor, DNA methyltransferase inhibitor,         adenosine receptor agonist, or a combination thereof, is in an         amount sufficient to generate definitive endodermal cells from a         mammalian cell population that transiently expresses         pluripotency factors.     -   63. The method of any of statements 53-62, wherein the TGFβ         family member, the WNT activator, the 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid,         the vitamin C, G9a histone methyltransferase inhibitor, histone         deacetylase inhibitor, DNA methyltransferase inhibitor,         adenosine receptor agonist, or a combination thereof, is in an         amount sufficient to generate mammalian cells that express         Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4         (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof, from a mammalian cell         population that transiently expresses pluripotency factors.     -   64. The method of any of statements 53-63, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population transiently expresses at least one         pluripotency factor while being incubated in the composition.     -   65. The method of statement 64, wherein the pluripotency factor         comprises OCT4, KLF4, SOX2, or a combination thereof.     -   66. The method of statement 64 or 65, wherein the pluripotency         further comprises c-MYC, p53 shRNA, or a combination thereof.     -   67. The method of any of statements 53-66, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is non-pluripotent.     -   68. The method of any of statements 53-67, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population comprises non-pluripotent fibroblasts,         epidermal cells, lymphocytes, hepatocytes, myoblasts, neurons,         osteoblasts, osteoclasts, T-cells, or any combination thereof     -   69. The method of any of statements 53-68, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population comprises partially and/or fully         differentiated cells of epithelial cell lineage, hematopoietic         lineage, endothelial cell lineage, muscle cell lineage, neural         cell lineage, or any combination thereof     -   70. The method of any of statements 53-69, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is from a non-pluripotent mammalian         cell population previously contacted with one or more         pluripotency factors or pluripotency inducing agents, or wherein         the non-pluripotent mammalian cell population is induced to         express one or more pluripotency factors.     -   71. The method of any of statements 53-68, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population comprises pluripotent stem cells.     -   72. The method of any of statements 53-70, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population does not express detectable amounts of         NANOG.     -   73. The method of any of statements 53-72, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is an isolated mammalian cell         population.     -   74. The method of any of statements 53-73, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is an isolated allogeneic mammalian         cell population.     -   75. The method of any of statements 53-74, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is an autologous mammalian cell         population isolated from a patient.     -   76. The method of any of statements 53-75, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population is contacted with the composition for         about 4 days to about 28 days.     -   77. The method of any of statements 53-76, wherein a portion of         the starting mammalian cell population is converted into         definitive endodermal cells after about 7 days, or after about         10 days, or after about 12 days, or after about 14 days, or         after about 16 days, or after about 18 days, or after about 20         days of contact with the composition.     -   78. The method of any of statements 53-77, wherein a portion of         the starting mammalian cell population express Sox17, Foxa2,         Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a         combination thereof, after about 7 days, or after about 10 days,         or after about 12 days, or after about 14 days, or after about         16 days, or after about 18 days, or after about 20 days of         contact with the composition.     -   79. The method of any of statements 53-78, wherein the starting         mammalian cell population and cells converting therefrom into         definitive endodermal cells do not express detectable levels of         NANOG.     -   80. The method of any of statements 53-79, further comprising         administering cells generated by the method to a mammal     -   81. The method of any of statements 53-80, further comprising         administering to a mammal at least some definitive endodermal         cells generated by the method.     -   82. The method of any of statements 53-81, further comprising         administering cells generated by the method to a mammal, wherein         the cells express Sox17, Foxa2, Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C         chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), or a combination thereof.     -   83. A method comprising contacting a cell population comprising         Sox17⁺, Foxa2⁺ cells with one or more growth factors, WNT         activators, TGFβ receptor inhibitors, or a combination thereof         for a time sufficient to expand the cell number by at least         ten-fold and thereby generate an expanded population of         posterior foregut-like progenitor cells.     -   84. The method of statement 83, wherein the expanded population         of posterior foregut-like progenitor cells maintains an         epithelial colony morphology.     -   85. The method of statement 83 or 84, wherein the expanded         population of posterior foregut-like progenitor cells express         SOX17, FOXA2, HNF4a, HNF6, SOX9, or any combination thereof     -   86. The method of any of statements 83-85, wherein the one or         more growth factors is a combination of EGF and bFGF.     -   87. The method of any of statements 83-86, wherein the WNT         activator is a lithium salt, CHIR99021, 1-azakenpaullone,         AR-A014418, indirubin-3′-monoxime, 5-Iodo-indirubin-3′-monoxime,         kenpaullone, SB-415286, SB-216763,         2-anilino-5-phenyl-1,3,4-oxadiazole),         (Z)-5-(2,3-Memylenedioxyphenyl)imidazolidine-2,4-dione, TWS119,         CHIR98014, SB415286, Tideglusib, LY2090314, or a combination         thereof     -   88. The method of any of statements 83-87, wherein the WNT         activator is CHIR99021.     -   89. The method of any of statements 83-88, wherein the TGFβ         receptor inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of         A83-01, SB431542, SB 431542, SJN 2511, D 4476, LY 364947,         SB505124, SB 525334, SD 208, LDN-193189, and any combination         thereof     -   90. The method of any of statements 83-89, wherein the TGFβ         receptor inhibitor is A83-01.     -   91. The method of any of statements 83-90, wherein the cell         number is expanded by at least 100-fold, or at least 1000-fold,         or at least 10,000-fold, or at least 100,000-fold, or by at         least 1 million-fold, or by at least 10 million-fold, or by at         least 100 million-fold.     -   92. The method of any of statements 83-91, further comprising         converting the posterior foregut-like progenitor cells into         pancreatic progenitor cells.     -   93. The method of any of statements 83-92, further comprising         contacting the posterior foregut-like progenitor cells with a         composition comprising at least one FGF7, FGF10, TGFβ receptor         inhibitor, Notch signaling inhibitor, retinoic acid receptor         agonist, hedgehog inhibitor, BMP4 signaling inhibitor, or a         combination thereof for at least one day to generate         differentiating cells.     -   94. The method of statement 93, further comprising contacting         the differentiating cells with EGF, a glucagon-like peptide-1         agonist, a TGFβ receptor inhibitor, a BMP4 signaling inhibitor,         an activator of protein kinase C, a Notch signaling inhibitor, a         polyADP-ribose synthetase inhibitor, or a combination thereof,         for at least 2 days to generate a population of pancreatic         progenitor cells.     -   95. The method of any of statements 83-94, wherein the         pancreatic progenitor cells express FOXA2, HNF6, SOX9, PDX1, or         any combination thereof.     -   96. The method of any of statements 83-95, further comprising         administering the posterior foregut-like progenitor cells, the         differentiating cells, the pancreatic progenitor cells, or a         combination thereof, to a mammalian subject.     -   97. The method of any of statements 83-96, wherein the mammalian         subject has diabetes.     -   98. A method comprising contacting pancreatic progenitor cells         with a composition comprising vitamin C (or phospho-L-ascorbic         acid) and nicotinamide to generate a population of pancreatic         beta cells.     -   99. The method of statement 98, wherein the pancreatic         progenitor cells express FOXA2, HNF6, SOX9, PDX1, or any         combination thereof.     -   100. The method of statement 98 or 99, wherein the pancreatic         beta cells express insulin, glucagon, PDX1, NKX6.1, NEUROD1,         NKX2.2, or any combination thereof.     -   101. The method of any of statements 98-100, wherein the         composition further comprises a TGFβ receptor inhibitor, a p38         mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase inhibitor, a Notch         signaling inhibitor, a glucagon-like peptide-1 agonist, a         basement membrane protein, an adenylyl cyclase activator, a         glucocorticoid receptor agonist, Ca′ channel agonist, or any         combination thereof     -   102. A method comprising: contacting pancreatic endodermal         progenitor cells with a composition comprising at least five of         the following: heparin, zinc salts, a TGF-β inhibitor, a BMP4         signaling inhibitor, a T3 thyroid hormone, cysteine, an         antioxidant, an Axl kinase inhibitor, a Notch Signaling         Inhibitor, a Ca²⁺ channel agonist, vitamin C, or any combination         thereof to generate a population of partially or fully         differentiated pancreatic beta-like cells.     -   103. The method of statement 102, wherein at least six, or at         least seven, or at least eight of the following: heparin, zinc         salts, a TGF-β inhibitor, a BMP4 signaling inhibitor, a T3         thyroid hormone, cysteine, an antioxidant, an Axl kinase         inhibitor, a Notch Signaling Inhibitor, a Ca²⁺ channel agonist,         vitamin C, or any combination thereof are contacted with the         pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells.     -   104. A method comprising: (a) contacting pancreatic endodermal         progenitor cells with a first composition that includes heparin,         zinc salts, a TGF-β inhibitor, a BMP4 signaling inhibitor, a T3         thyroid hormone, a Notch Signaling Inhibitor, a Ca²⁺ channel         agonist, vitamin C, and combinations thereof to generate a first         population of partially differentiated pancreatic beta-like         cells; (b) contacting the first population of cells with a         second composition that includes heparin zinc salts, a TGF-β         inhibitor, a BMP4 signaling inhibitor, a T3 thyroid hormone,         cysteine, an anti-oxidant, an Axl kinase inhibitor, a Ca²⁺         channel agonist, vitamin C, or any combination thereof to         generate a second population of pancreatic beta-like cells.     -   105. The method of any of statements 102-104 further comprising         step (c) wherein the second population of cells is cultured to         generate 3D aggregates using low-attachment plates to generate         3D pancreatic beta cells.     -   106. The method of any of statements 102-105, wherein the         pancreatic beta cells or the 3D pancreatic beta cells are         administered to a mammal     -   107. A method comprising:         -   a. contacting pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells with a             composition comprising vitamin C, BayK-8644, heparin, zinc             sulfate, Alk5 inhibitor II, LDN-193189, T3 thyroid hormone,             and Compound E for three to fifteen days to generate a first             population of cells;         -   b. contacting the first population of cells with a second             composition comprising vitamin C, BayK-8644, heparin, zinc             sulfate, Alk5 inhibitor II, T3 thyroid hormone, N-cysteine,             6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2 carboxylic acid, and             R8428 for three to fifteen days to generate a second             population of cells; and         -   c. culturing the second population of cells as 3D aggregates             in low-attachment plates for three to fifteen days to             thereby generate a third cell population comprising             functional pancreatic beta-like cells.     -   108. The method of statement 107, further comprising         administering the functional pancreatic beta-like cells to a         mammal in need thereof     -   109. The method of statement 106 or 108, wherein the mammal has         type I diabetes, type II diabetes, or type 1.5 diabetes.     -   110. A method of producing a pancreatic beta cell from a stem         cell comprising:         -   (a) Exposing a stem cell to 10-300 ng/ml Epidermal Growth             Factor or 10-300 ng/ml Keratinocyte Growth Factor for 12-72             hours in DMEM comprising 0.1-5 mM glutamine (0.05-2.5x             GLUTAMAX™), 0.1-5X (e.g., 1X) Invitrogen non-essential amino             acids, and 0.1-5X (e.g., 1X) B27 supplement under conditions             suitable for cell culture growth, thereby maintaining a             progenitor cell;         -   (b) incubating the progenitor cell in DMEM comprising 0.1-5X             (e.g., 1X) Invitrogen non-essential amino acids, 0.1-5 mM             glutamine (0.05-2.5X GLUTAMAX™), 2-20 μg/ml heparin, 0.2-5             mM cysteine, 2-20 μM zinc, 2-20 μM ALK inhibitor, 0.2-2 μM             BMP inhibitor LDN-193189, 0.2-5 μM T3 thyroid hormone and             0.2-5 μM gamma secretase inhibitor XX to yield a cell in             culture; and         -   (c) adding to the cell in culture 10-2000 μM vitamin C and             0.2-5 μM BayK-8644, thereby producing a functional             pancreatic beta cell.     -   111. The method of statement 110 wherein the stem cell is         -   (a) exposed to 50 ng/ml Epidermal Growth Factor or 50 ng/ml             of Keratinocyte Growth Factor for 12-72 hours in DMEM             comprising 2 mM glutamine (IX GLUTAMAX™), 0.1-5X (e.g., IX)             Invitrogen non-essential amino acids, and 0.1-5X (e.g., IX)             B27 supplement;         -   (b) incubated in DMEM comprising 0.1-5X (e.g., IX)             Invitrogen non-essential amino acids, 2 mM glutamine (IX             GLUTAMAX™), 10 μg/ml heparin, 1 mM cysteine, 10 μM zinc, 10             μM ALK inhibitor, 0.5 μM BMP inhibitor LDN-193189, 1 μM T3             thyroid hormone and 1 μm gamma secretase inhibitor XX to             yield a cell in culture; and         -   (c) adding to the cell in culture 500 μM vitamin C and 2 μM             BayK-8644, thereby producing a functional pancreatic beta             cell.     -   112. The method of statement 111 wherein the stem cell is         exposed to Epidermal Growth Factor or Keratinocyte Growth Factor         for 24-48 hours.     -   113. The method of any one of statements 110-112 wherein the         stem cell is an embryonic stem cell.     -   114. The method of any one of statements 110-113 wherein the         stem cell is a human stem cell.     -   115. The method of any one of statements 110-114 wherein the         stem cell is exposed to epidermal growth factor.     -   116. The method of any one of statements 110-115 wherein the         stem cell is exposed to keratinocyte growth factor.     -   117. The method of any one of statements 110-114 wherein the         stem cell is exposed to epidermal growth factor and keratinocyte         growth factor.     -   118. The method of any one of statements 110-117 wherein the         functional pancreatic beta cell exhibits a 1-7-fold increase in         insulin secretion upon stimulation with glucose.     -   119. The method of any one of statements 110-118 wherein the         pancreatic beta cell is functional immediately upon         transplantation.     -   120. The method of any one of statements 110-119 wherein the         pancreatic beta cell is functional within one week of         transplantation.     -   121. The method of any one of statements 110-120 wherein the         pancreatic beta cell remains functional for at least four weeks.     -   122. The method of any one of statements 110-121 further         comprising exposure of the stem cell to an oxygen level no         greater than 10% O₂.     -   123. The method of statement 122 wherein the oxygen level is no         greater than 5% O₂.     -   124. The method of statement 122 wherein the oxygen level is no         greater than 4% O₂.     -   125. The method of any one of statements 110-124 wherein NGN3         and PDX1/NKX6.1 are expressed during the incubating step and the         adding step.     -   126. The method of any one of statements 110-125 wherein at         least 75% of the stem cells differentiate into functional         pancreatic beta cells.     -   127. The method of any one of statements 110-126 wherein the         progenitor cell is maintained for up to 32 days in culture         containing Epidermal Growth Factor or Keratinocyte Growth         Factor.     -   128. A functional pancreatic beta cell produced according to the         method of any one of statements 110-127.     -   129. The functional pancreatic beta cell of statement 128,         wherein the cell is a human cell.     -   130. The functional pancreatic beta cell of statement 128 or         statement 129, wherein the cell expresses at least three         pancreatic cell markers selected from the group of human         c-peptide (C-PEP), Chromagranin A (CHGA), transcription factor         NKX6.1, transcription factor PDX1, transcription factor PAX6,         transcription factor NKX2.2, transcription factor NEUROD1 and         transcription factor ISL1 without inducing expression of         Glucagon (GCG) or Somatostatin (SST).     -   131. A method for treating diabetes comprising administering an         effective amount of the cell according to any of statements         110-130 to a diabetic subject.     -   132. The method of statement 131 wherein the subject is human.     -   133. A method of producing a pancreatic beta cell from a stem         cell comprising:         -   (a) exposing a stem cell to Epidermal Growth Factor or             Keratinocyte Growth Factor for 12-72 hours under conditions             suitable for cell culture growth, thereby maintaining a             progenitor cell;         -   (b) incubating the progenitor cell in a culture medium             comprising heparin, cysteine, zinc, ALK inhibitor, BMP             inhibitor LDN-193189, T3 thyroid hormone and gamma secretase             inhibitor XX to yield a cell in culture; and         -   (c) adding to the cell in culture vitamin C and BayK-8644,             thereby producing a functional pancreatic beta cell.     -   134. The method of statement 133, wherein the stem cell of         step (a) is exposed to 10-300 ng/ml Epidermal Growth Factor or         10-300 ng/ml of Keratinocyte Growth Factor; the culture medium         of step (b) comprises 2-20 μg/ml heparin, 0.2-5 mM cysteine,         2-20 μM zinc, 2-20 μM ALK inhibitor, 0.2-2 μM BMP inhibitor         LDN-193189, 0.2-5 μM T3 thyroid hormone and 0.2-5 μM gamma         secretase inhibitor XX; and step (c) comprises adding to the         cell in culture 10-2000 μM vitamin C and 0.2-5 μM BayK-8644.     -   135. The method of statement 134, wherein the stem cell of         step (a) is exposed to 50 ng/ml Epidermal Growth Factor or 50         ng/ml of Keratinocyte Growth Factor; the culture medium of         step (b) comprises 10 μg/ml heparin, 1 mM cysteine, 10 μM zinc,         10 μM ALK inhibitor, 0.5 μM BMP inhibitor LDN-193189, 1 μM T3         thyroid hormone and 1 μM gamma secretase inhibitor XX; and         step (c) comprises adding to the cell in culture 500 μM vitamin         C and 2 μM BayK-8644.

The method of any one of statements 133-135, wherein said exposing of step (a) is in DMEM comprising 0.1-5 mM glutamine or 0.05-2.5x GLUTAMAX™, 0.1-5X non-essential amino acids, and 0.1-5X B27 supplement.

The method of any one of statements 133-136, wherein the culture medium of step (b) comprises DMEM comprising 0.1-5 mM glutamine or 0.05-2.5x GLUTAMAX™, and 0.1-5X non-essential amino acids.

The method of any one of statements 133-137, wherein said exposing of step (a) is in DMEM comprising 2 mM glutamine or IX GLUTAMAX™.

The method of any one of statements 133-138, wherein the culture medium of step (b) comprises DMEM comprising 2 mM glutamine or IX GLUTAMAX™.

-   -   140. The method of any one of statements 133-139, wherein the         stem cell is exposed to Epidermal Growth Factor or Keratinocyte         Growth Factor for 24-48 hours.     -   141. The method of any one of statements 133-140, wherein the         stem cell is an embryonic stem cell.     -   142. The method of any one of statements 133-141, wherein the         stem cell is a human stem cell.     -   143. The method of any one of statements 133-142, wherein the         stem cell is exposed to epidermal growth factor.     -   144. The method of any one of statements 133-143, wherein the         stem cell is exposed to keratinocyte growth factor.     -   145. The method of any one of statements 133-142, wherein the         stem cell is exposed to epidermal growth factor and keratinocyte         growth factor.     -   146. The method of any one of statements 133-145, wherein the         functional pancreatic beta cell exhibits a 1-7-fold increase in         insulin secretion upon stimulation with glucose.     -   147. The method of any one of statements 133-145, wherein the         functional pancreatic beta cell exhibits a 2-fold or more         increase in insulin secretion upon stimulation with glucose.     -   148. The method of any one of statements 133-147, wherein the         pancreatic beta cell is functional immediately upon         transplantation.     -   149. The method of any one of statements 133-148, wherein the         pancreatic beta cell is functional within one week of         transplantation.     -   150. The method of any one of statements 133-149, wherein the         pancreatic beta cell remains functional for at least four weeks.     -   151. The method of any one of statements 133-150, further         comprising exposure of the stem cell to an oxygen level no         greater than 10% O₂.     -   152. The method of statement 151, wherein the oxygen level is no         greater than 5% O₂.     -   153. The method of statement 152, wherein the oxygen level is no         greater than 4% O₂.     -   154. The method of any one of statements 133-153, wherein NGN3         and PDX1/NKX6.1 are expressed during the incubating step and the         adding step.     -   155. The method of any one of statements 133-154, wherein at         least 75% of the stem cells differentiate into functional         pancreatic beta cells.     -   156. The method of any one of statements 133-155, wherein the         progenitor cell is maintained for up to 32 days in culture         containing Epidermal Growth Factor or Keratinocyte Growth         Factor.     -   157. A functional pancreatic beta cell produced according to the         method of any one of statements 133-156.     -   158. The functional pancreatic beta cell of statement 157,         wherein the cell is a human cell.     -   159. The functional pancreatic beta cell of statement 157 or         statement 158, wherein the cell expresses at least three         pancreatic cell markers selected from the group of human         c-peptide (C-PEP), Chromagranin A (CHGA), transcription factor         NKX6.1, transcription factor PDX1, transcription factor PAX6,         transcription factor NKX2.2, transcription factor NEUROD1 and         transcription factor ISL1 without inducing expression of         Glucagon (GCG) or Somatostatin (SST).     -   160. A method for treating diabetes comprising administering an         effective amount of the cell according to any one of claims         157-159, to a diabetic subject.     -   161. The method of statement 160, wherein the subject is human.     -   162. Any of the above statements, wherein the pancreatic beta         cells, functional pancreatic beta cells, or functional         pancreatic beta-like cells express one or more of insulin,         glucagon, PDX1, NKX6.1, NEUROD1, and NKX2.2.     -   163. Any of the above statements, wherein the pancreatic beta         cells, functional pancreatic beta cells, or functional         pancreatic beta-like cells express at least three pancreatic         cell markers selected from the group of human c-peptide (C-PEP),         Chromagranin A (CHGA), transcription factor NKX6.1,         transcription factor PDX1, transcription factor PAX6,         transcription factor NKX2.2, transcription factor NEUROD1 and         transcription factor ISL1 without inducing expression of         Glucagon (GCG) or Somatostatin (SST).

EXAMPLES

The following examples are offered to illustrate, but not to limit the claimed invention.

Example 1

Materials and Methods

This Example describes some of the materials and methods employed in development of the invention.

Dox-Inducible Secondary MEF Preparation

NGFP1 Dox-inducible induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells (Stemgent) were injected into C57BL/6 blastocysts and implanted into surrogate mice (CD1, Harlan). Chimeric embryos were isolated at E12.5-13.5. Heads, developing organs and spinal cords were carefully removed from the embryos, and MEFs were prepared and specifically selected as reported (Hanna, Markoulaki et al. 2008; Wernig, Lengner et al. 2008; Hanna, Saha et al. 2009).

Direct Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Definitive Endoderm-Like Cells

Dax-inducible secondary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) (cells at passage 3-4 were regularly used) were plated on Matrigel-coated culture dishes at a cell density of 1×104 cells/cm². Cells were cultured in MEF medium (Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium vvith 10% fetal bovine serum and 2 GLUTAMAX™) for an additional day. The medium was then changed to Med I (Knock-out DMEM with 10% knock-out serum replacer, 5% FBS, 2 mM GLUTAMAX™, 0.1 mM non-essential amino acids (NEAA), and 0.055 mM J3-mercaptoethanol) supplemented with 4˜tg/ml Dax, 50 ng/ml Activin A and 1 mM LiCl for the indicated time. Thereafter, the medium was changed to Med II (75% Iscove's modified Dulbecco's medium, 25% Ham's F12 medium, supplemented with 1×N2 supplements, 0.05% bovine serum albumin, 2 mil GLUTAMAX™, and 0.45 mM monothiolglycerol (MTG)) supplemented with 50 ng/ml Activin A and 1 mM LiCl for the indicated time. All reagents were purchased from Invitrogen if not specified, and all cytokines were from R&D Systems.

Differentiation of Definitive Endoderm-Like Cells (DELCs) to Pancreatic Progenitor-Like Cells (PPLCs)

DELCs were further cultured in Med III (DMEM supplemented with 1xB27, 2 mM GLUTAMAX™), and treated with 2 μM retinoic acid (RA), 1 μM A83-01, 2 μM LDE225 and 280 μM 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid trisodium salt (pVc) for 1 day, and then with 1 μM A83-01, 2 μM LDE225 and 280 μM pVc for another 3 days. At the end of treatment, lineage specific markers were analyzed by immunostaining and/or real-time.

Immunocytochemistry

Immunocytochemistry analysis was performed as previously described (Efe et al. 2011). Primary antibodies used were Sox17 (R&D), Foxa2 (Millipore), Pdx1 (R&D), Hnf6 (Santa Cruz), Pax6 (Covance), Sox9 (Santa Cruz), Nkx6.1 (Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank), Insulin (Dako), Glucagon (Sigma), Somatostatin (Abeam), Amylase (Abeam), and CK19 (Abcam). Nuclei were visualized by DAPI (Sigma-Aldrich) staining Images were captured using a Nikon Eclipse TE2000-U microscope.

Gene Expression Analysis by Real-Time PCR

Total RNA was extracted using the RNeasy Plus Mini Kit in combination with QIAshredder (Qiagen). First-strand reverse transcription was performed with 2 μg RNA with the iScript™ cDNA Synthesis Kit (BioRad). Expression of pluripotency and lineage-specific marker genes was analyzed by real-time PCR with iQ SYBR Green Supermix (Bio-Rad).

Transplantation Assay

Male, 8-10-week-old NOD.Cg-Prkdcscid Il2rgtm1Wjl/SzJ (NSG) mice (Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Me.) were injected intraperitoneally with 35 mg/kg Streptozocin (STZ; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.) daily for 4 days. Blood glucose levels were assayed from tail-vein blood with a standard blood glucose meter (Diabetic Care Services, Eastlake, Ohio). Hyperglycemia developed 5-7 days after the STZ injection. Mice were considered to be diabetic if blood glucose measurements were >300 mg/dl for 4 consecutive days, after which they were used as transplant recipients. Under anesthesia, diabetic mice received a renal subcapsular transplant of about 3×10⁶ pancreatic progenitor-like cells (n=14) or 3×10⁶ secondary MEF cells (n=10). Untreated normal mice (n=4) and mice treated with STZ only (n=4) were used as controls. Non-fasting blood glucose levels were measured weekly after surgery for 8 weeks. Serum insulin was measured by ELISA (Millipore, Billerica, Mass.) at the end of 8 weeks. All animal work was approved by the institutional IACUC committee.

Immunohistochemistry

Left kidneys were removed from euthanized mice, fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and used for paraffin section and cryosection. Kidneys were transversally sectioned and stained with primary antibodies. Then, the antigen-primary antibody immune complex was visualized with fluorescent secondary antibodies (Invitrogen). Cell nuclei were counterstained with DAPI.

Insulin Detection Assay

An insulin-release assay was performed as described (Schroeder et al. 2006). Briefly, cells were washed five times with PBS and pre-incubated in freshly prepared Krebs' Ringer bicarbonate HEPES buffer (KRBH; 118 mM NaCl, 4.7 mM KCl, 1.1 mM KH₂PO₄, 25 mM NaHCO₃, 3.4 mM CaCl₂, 2.5 mM MgSO₄, 10 mM HEPES and 2 mg/ml BSA, pH 7.4) with 2.5 mM glucose for 90 min at 37° C. KRBH buffer was then replaced with KRBH buffer containing either 27.7 or 5.5 mM glucose for another 90 min at 37° C. Supernatants were collected to determine insulin release. For serum insulin detection, 0.1 ml of tail-vein blood was collected from each mouse at the end of 8 weeks after surgery, and serum was used for insulin detection. Insulin was measured by ELISA (Millipore, Billerica, Mass.).

Statistical Analysis

Data were presented as mean±SD. Differences were analyzed by Student's t-test. P<0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Example 2

Direct Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Definitive Endoderm-Like Cells (DELCs)

This Example describes procedures for generating definitive endoderm-like cells from mouse embryonic fibroblasts.

The doxycycline (Dox)-inducible secondary mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEF) system (Wernig, Lengner et al. 2008; Hanna, Saha et al. 2009) was employed to enable expression of the conventional four iPSC factors (the Yamanaka factors or Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc) with precise temporal control. MEFs were carefully prepared using standard procedures and used for reprogramming after 3-4 passages. Although endoderm cells may exist in starting MEF populations, no such contamination of these cells was observed in the cultures employed.

To extend and test the iPSC-factor-based lineage-specific reprogramming paradigm to endoderm, a two-step process was first devised to directly reprogram secondary MEF cells into definitive endoderm-like cells (DELCs). The first step (step I) involved culturing secondary MEF cells in media (Med-I) that is supplemented with 4 μg/ml Dox to initiate epigenetic activation. The second step (step II) was culturing the epigenetically activated cells in Med-II supplemented with 50 ng/ml Activin A and 1 mM LiCl (hereafter referred to as Activin/Li). Activin A plus LiCl was used as the definitive endoderm induction condition because chemical activation of the canonical WNT signaling pathway by LiCl synergized with Activin A-mediated Nodal signaling to promote induction of definitive endoderm cells from mouse ES cells (Li et al. 2011). Sox17 and Foxa2, two relatively specific markers for definitive endoderm (Tam, Kanai-Azuma et al. 2003; Qu, Pan et al. 2008), were examined by immunostaining at the end of Step II. By observing the results of different durations of Step I and Step II, it was determined that 6-days of Step I followed by 6 days of Step II was an effective condition to generate Sox17⁺/Foxa2⁺ cells with relatively high efficiency. Consistent with results observed by the inventors in studies on cardiac and neural inductions using this paradigm, a shortened first step induction of down to 4 days could still produce homogenous Sox17/Foxa2 double positive colonies with fewer numbers, while prolonged first step induction, such as 7 days or 8 days, dramatically decreased the percentage of Sox17/Foxa2 double positive colonies. Hereafter these Sox17/Foxa2 double-positive cells are referred to as definitive endoderm-like cells (DELCs).

In previous cardiac and neural reprogramming studies and the initial endoderm reprogramming using the iPSC-factor-based lineage-specific reprogramming paradigm, cell specification by lineage-specific signals was only induced after initial epigenetic activation with iPSC factors. Therefore, whether lineage-specific signals could overlap with epigenetic activation to enhance the efficiency of reprogramming (towards a lineage-specific fate) is unclear.

The inventors hypothesized that transcriptional activity downstream of lineage-specific signals, in conjunction with iPSC factors that erase the starting cell's epigenetic identity during early reprogramming, could help set up lineage-specific transcriptional programs. To test this hypothesis, conditions were evaluated in which definitive endoderm induction factors (Activin/Li) were added to fibroblasts either after (Approach-I) or during (Approach II) iPSC factor expression, using Sox17 and Foxa2 expression as a measure of DELC induction (FIG. 1A). In contrast, addition of Activin/Li during the iPSC-factor expression (Approach-II) yielded mRNA levels of Sox17 and Foxa2 1.5 fold greater than strictly separating iPSC factor expression and Activin/Li induction in the two steps (Approach-I) (FIG. 1B). Consistently, addition of Activin/Li during the iPSC-factor expression (Approach-II) also greatly increased the percentage of Sox17/Foxa2 double positive colonies (FIG. 1C-1D). By using the Approach-II, 6-days iPSC factor expression in the presence of Activin/Li followed by Activin/Li treatment for another 6 days, other definitive endoderm marker genes, including Cerberus 1 (Cer) and C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), were highly induced in addition to Sox17 and Foxa2 (FIGS. 2B-2C). These results supported the hypothesis that transcriptional activities downstream of lineage-specific signals could participate early to set up the lineage-specific transcriptional programs in conjunction with iPSC factors.

To establish a proof of concept that these DELCs have the differentiation potential toward pancreatic lineages, the DELCs were initially subjected to published pancreatic differentiation conditions (D'Amour et al., 2006; Li et al., 2011). Notably, like definitive endoderm cells derived from mouse embryonic stem (mES) cells, the DELCs generated by the methods described herein also gave rise to cells that expressed specific markers for pancreatic progenitors, including pancreatic and duodenal homeobox gene-1 (Pdx1) (Offield, Jetton et al. 1996), hepatocyte nuclear factor-6 (Hnf6) (Jacquemin, Durviaux et al. 2000), paired-box gene 6 (Pax6) (Sander, Neubuser et al. 1997), and NK homeobox factor 6.1 (Nkx6.1) (Sander, Sussel et al. 2000), as examined by immunostaining and real-time PCR (FIG. 2D-2E). The cells expressing pancreatic progenitor markers are referred to herein as pancreatic progenitor-like cells (PPLCs). Further differentiation of the PPLCs in vitro could give rise to insulin expressing cells, as examined by immunostaining and real-time PCR (FIG. 2F-2G). These results demonstrate that the DELCs generated as described herein could differentiate all the way to pancreatic β-like cells, like definitive endoderm cells derived from mES cells.

However, the efficiency of generating pancreatic-like cells from the DELCs was low, although comparable to differentiation of mES cells using the same conditions. For example, only about 5% and 10% of cells were positive for just Nkx6.1 or Pdx1, respectively, and only about 1% were Pdx1/Nkx6.1 double positive. Further differentiation in vitro gave rise to less than 0.1% insulin expressing cells. And consistent with previous studies (D'Amour et al., 2006), these insulin expressing cells didn't response well to high glucose stimulation. These results indicate that the lineage induction conditions ideally should be further improved. Therefore, the next Example describes efforts for optimizing induction conditions for generating pancreatic-like cells by small molecules.

Example 3

Identification of Novel Combinations of Small Molecules that Enhance Generation of Pancreatic Progenitor-Like Cells

This Example describes experiments demonstrating that several small molecules can be used to generate pancreatic progenitor-like cells from cells that express factors such as Cerberus 1 (Cer), C—X—C chemokine receptor type 4 (Cxcr4), Sox17, and/or Foxa2.

Beta cell formation and maturation are impaired in Nkx6.1-null mutant mice and can be restored upon re-expression of Nkx6.1 in multipotential Pdx1+ pancreatic progenitors (Nelson et al., 2007). In other studies, Pdx1+/Nkx6.1+ pancreatic progenitor cells differentiated from human ES cells could be purified with the cell-surface marker CD142, and after transplantation into mice, these purified progenitor cells gave rise to all pancreatic cell lineages, including glucose-responsive, insulin-secreting cells (Kelly et al., 2011). These studies suggest that dual expression of Pdx1 and Nkx6.1 is an indicator that pancreatic progenitor cells can give rise to functional β cells. Induction of Pdx1⁺ and Nkx6.1⁺ expression was used in experiments designed to identify conditions that generate pancreatic progenitor-like cells (PPLCs) from the reprogrammed DELCs.

An available drug collection of 400 compounds in the 48well format was screened to identify small molecules that induce high percentages of Pdx 1⁺/NKx6.1⁺ cells in DELC populations. Med-III medium (DMEM supplemented with 1 kB27, 2 mM GLUTAMAX™) was used as the basal condition and double staining of Pdx1 and Nkx 6.1 at 4 days post-induction was used as the readout.

Induction of Pdx1 and Nkx6.1 expression by small molecules is referred herein to the “third step” (step III) of pancreatic induction. Several primary hits that could increase Pdx1 and/or Nkx6.1 expression were further characterized using larger-well cultures. Confirmed hits included retinoic acid (RA, a RAR agonist), A83-01 (a TGFβ receptor inhibitor), 2-phospho-L-ascorbic acid (pVc), and LDE225 (a hedgehog pathway inhibitor) (FIG. 3). After testing various small molecule combinations, significantly improved pancreatic induction was achieved by treating DELCs with 2 μM RA, 1 μM A83-01, 2 μM LDE225 and 280 μM pVc for 1 day, and then 1 μM A83-01, 2 μM LDE225 and 280 μM pVc for another 3 days. Under these conditions, the pancreatic progenitor makers Pdx1, Nkx6.1, Hnf6, Pax6 and Sox9 (Lynn, Smith et al. 2007) were highly expressed and co-localized as detected by co-immunostaining (FIG. 4B). About 35% of the cells expressed Pdx1 and about 30% of the cells expressed Nkx6.1, 2.5-fold and 5-fold increase, respectively, over previous conditions (POC approach). More importantly, about 8% of the cells were Pdx1/Nkx6.1 double positive, a 7-fold increase over previous conditions (POC approach). qRT-PCR analysis further confirmed heightened expression of Pdx1, Nkx6.1, Pax6 and Hnf6 during the pancreatic induction process (FIG. 4C). These results indicate that this novel combination of small molecules promoted differentiation of DELCs into Pdx1⁺/Nkx6.1⁺ PPLCs.

The inventors then hypothesized that overlapping lineage-specific patterning conditions based on small molecules with early reprogramming would enhance pancreatic induction. To this end, further screens of the inventors' drug collection were performed during the first- and second-step inductions, with double staining of Pdx1 and Nkx6.1 at the end of the third step (day 16) as a readout. Remarkably, several small molecules, when applied during the first and/or second steps, greatly enhanced pancreatic induction. In particular, 1 μM Bix-01294 (a G9a histone methyltransferase inhibitor), when added from DO to D6, and 280 μM pVc, when added from DO to D12, increased the number of Pdx1+/Nkx6.1+ colonies to about 3 fold and 4 fold respectively (FIG. 4D-4E). Further testing revealed that the combination of 1 μM Bix-01294 (added from DO to D6) and 280 μM pVc (added from DO to D12) generated about 8 fold of Pdx1+/Nkx6.1+ colonies (FIG. 4D-4E). Interestingly, treatment with Bix and/or pVc had no significant influence on the numbers of Sox17 and Foxa2 single positive and double positive cells.

Therefore, conditions and small molecules have been identified for efficiently generating pancreatic progenitor-like cells (PPLCs).

Example 4

Pancreatic Progenitor-Like Cells Can Be Further Differentiated into Mature Pancreatic-Like Cells

This Example describes experiments demonstrating that the pancreatic progenitor-like cells generated as described above can be differentiated into more mature pancreatic-like cells.

The pancreatic progenitor-like cells generated as described herein were treated with Med-IV medium containing laminin, nicotinamide, and B27 etc. as previously reported (Schroeder et al., 2006) to determine whether those PPLCs can be further differentiated into mature pancreatic like cells. After 9 days of culture in this medium, a small population (about 0.5%) of insulin and C-peptide double-positive cells was detected.

To improve efficiency of pancreatic maturation, the inventors' drug collection was further screened in a “fourth” step (step IV) to identify compounds that increase the percentage of cells that express insulin and Pdx1 on day 25. These experiments showed that 5 μM SB203580 and 280 μM pVc significantly increased the number of insulin+/Pdx1⁺ double-positive cells when used individually, and when combined together these compounds synergistically enhanced the numbers of insulin⁺/Pdx1⁺ cells in the population (e.g., to about 2%) (FIG. 5A).

The expression levels of insulin, Pdx1 and Nkx6.1 in the pancreatic progenitor-like cells treated with SB203580 and pVc also increased significantly (FIG. 5B). Glucagon-producing pancreatic alpha-like cells, somatostatin-producing pancreatic delta-like cells, and amylase-producing pancreatic acinar-like cells were also detected on day 25 (FIG. 5C). Importantly, these endocrine-like cells produced only one hormone, a defining characteristic of mature pancreatic endocrine cells. The insulin-positive cells were also Nkx6.1-positive and secreted insulin when stimulated with high level of glucose (FIG. 5C-5D). Thus, these differentiated PPLCs gave rise to pancreatic endocrine and exocrine-like cells in vitro, including functional insulin-secreting beta-like cells.

Example 5

iPSCs Were Not Generated during the Reprogramming of Fibroblasts to Pancreatic-Like Cells

This Example illustrates that the reprogramming procedure described in Example 2 does not generate fully pluripotent stem cells.

Generating iPSCs from secondary MEFs requires at least 9 days of Dox treatment with LIF, followed by an additional 7-10 days of culture, as confirmed by expression of a knock-in GFP reporter for Nanog, a pluripotency gene (Wernig, Lengner et al. 2008). However, when the procedures described herein were employed, no Nanog-GFP-positive cells were detected during reprogramming of MEFs to DELCs, as assessed via time-lapse imaging (FIG. 6B). This finding is consistent with the inventors' previous studies on direct cardiac, neural and endothelial cell reprogramming. As detected by qRT-PCR, Nanog and Rex1 (another pluripotency gene) expression remained nearly undetectable during the whole process, while endoderm marker genes were induced from day 4 and peaked on day 12 (FIG. 6A). On day 12, the expression levels of these endoderm marker genes were comparable to or higher than those of iPSC-derived definitive endoderm cells (FIG. 6A).

Similarly, Nanog-GFP-positive cells were not detected by time-lapse imaging during the third and fourth steps of differentiation (FIG. 6C-6D). Expression of the pancreatic progenitor markers Pdx1/Nkx6.1 were detected at the end of step III, and the endocrine pancreatic markers insulin and Glucagon were detected at the end of step IV by immunostaining and/or by q-RT-PCR (FIG. 6A, 6C, 6D). These results confirmed that the methods described herein can directly reprogram MEF cells to DELCs and eventually generate pancreatic-like cells without starting from iPSCs.

Example 6

In Vivo Characterizations of Pancreatic Progenitor-Like Cells

This Example shows that the pancreatic progenitor-like cells generated as described above can give rise to insulin secreting pancreatic beta cells that can regulate blood glucose levels in vivo.

To assess PPLC function in vivo, PPLCs were transplanted under the kidney capsules of immunodeficient NOD.Cg-Prkdcscid Il2rgtm1Wjl/SzJ (NSG) mice, which had been induced to become hyperglycemic by intraperitoneal injection of STZ (Streptozocin). Mice were considered diabetic when blood glucose measurements were >300 mg/dl for 4 consecutive days, at which stage they were used as transplant recipients. Each recipient received a renal subcapsular transplant of about 3×10⁶ pancreatic progenitor-like cells or 3×10⁶ MEF cells. Untreated normal and STZ-only-treated NSG mice were used as controls. Blood glucose levels were measured weekly after surgery.

In the untreated control group, blood glucose levels remained normal, as expected (FIG. 7A). The lower line (X symbols) shows the blood glucose levels of normal mice. As shown in FIG. 7A, the STZ-only group (filled triangles), glucose levels increased gradually and peaked by the end of the third week. In the STZ-treated group that received MEF cells (filled squares), glucose levels increased similar to the STZ-only group.

In contrast, STZ-treated mice, who had received transplantation of PPLCs, exhibited a transient increase in glucose levels within the first week that decreased gradually thereafter and that approached levels in normal mice by about week 7 (FIG. 7A, filled diamonds). These data indicate that the implanted PPLCs differentiated into insulin-secreting cells within the first 2 weeks of transplantation. At the end of 3 weeks, the kidneys of three mice from each of the two cell-transplanted groups were harvested for immunofluorescence analyses. In kidney capsules engrafted with PPLCs, glucagon-producing pancreatic alpha-like cells, insulin-producing pancreatic beta-like cells, somatostatin-producing pancreatic delta-like cells, amylase-producing pancreatic acinar-like cells, and Pdx1⁺/Ck19⁺ pancreatic ductal-like cells were identified (FIG. 7B). In contrast, none of these genes were expressed in kidney capsules engrafted with MEF cells. Furthermore, the detected insulin-positive cells were also Pdx1- and Nkx6.1-positive (FIG. 7C). Importantly, these endocrine-like cells were nearly all singly hormonal, and bi-hormonal cells were rarely detected (FIG. 7C), which is consistent with the in vitro findings described herein.

To assess serum insulin levels, blood samples were collected at the end of 8 weeks and analyzed by ELISA. Transplantation of PPLCs to the diabetic mice significantly increased the level of circulating insulin, compared with MEF-grafted mice (FIG. 7D). There was no significant difference in serum insulin levels between STZ-only mice and STZ mice transplanted with MEF cells. These results showed that PPLCs could mature in vivo into cells of all three pancreatic lineages, including functional, insulin-secreting beta cells that help to ameliorate hyperglycemia in vivo.

Example 7

Materials and Methods for Conversion of Human Fibroblasts into Endodermal Progenitor Cells

This example describes procedures for generating endodermal progenitor cells from human fibroblasts.

Conversion of Human Fibroblasts into Endodermal Progenitor Cells

All cell culture products were from Invitrogen/Gibco BRL and all chemicals and growth factors were from Stemgent except where mentioned.

Human foreskin fibroblasts (CRL-2097, ATCC) were cultured in a 10 cm tissue culture dish in regular fibroblast culture medium. Reprogramming with episomal vectors was done as described by Okita et al. (2011). Briefly, 4×10⁵ fibroblasts were electroporated with up to 6 μg of episomal vectors (pCXLE-hOCT3/4-shp53-F, pCXLE-hSK and pCXLE-EGFP) using the Microporator Human Dermal Fibroblast (WNHDF) Nucleofector™ Kit (Lonza) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Cells were cultured in fibroblast medium for 4 days and then re-plated onto Matrigel-coated 10 cm dishes at a density, of 50,000 cells per dish. The cells were then cultured in reprogramming initiation medium (DMEM/F 12, 10% Knockout serum replacement, 5% ES-FBS, 1% GLUTAMAX™, 1% Non-essential amino acids, 1% penicillin/streptomycin, 0.1 mM [3-mercaptoethanol, 10 ng/ml bFGF, 10 ng/ml EGF, 2 μM Pamate, 0.5 μM RG108, 0.1 mM sodium butyrate, 0.5 μM NECA, and 3 μM CHIR99021, for 1 week, followed by endodermal induction medium (Advanced RPMI, 2% ES-FBS, 1% GLUTAMAX™, 1% Non-essential amino acids, 1% penicillin/streptomycin, 0.1 mM [3-mercaptoethanol, 2 μM Pamate, 0.5 μM RG 108, 0.1 mM sodium butyrate, 0.5 μM NECA, 3 μM CHIR99021, and 100 ng/ml Activin A) for another 2-3 weeks. The converted colonies were carefully picked up for expansion in expansion medium (DMEM, 1% GLUTAMAX™, 0.5×N2, 0.5×B27 media supplement (Invitrogen), 5 μg/ml BSA, 1% penicillin/streptomycin, 10 ng/ml bFGF, 10n g/ml EGF, 0.5 μM A83-01, and 3 μM CHIR99021) and were passaged at 1:4-1:6 each time by Accutase treatment. Routinely, 0.5 μM thiazovivin was used during the first 12-24 hour period of each passage to prevent cell death a dissociation.

Differentiation of Posterior Foregut-Like Progenitor Cells (cPF Cells) into Pancreatic Endodermal Progenitor Cells (cPE Cells)

For pancreatic differentiation, posterior foregut-like progenitor cells were cultured in pancreatic differentiation medium (DMEM, 1& GLUTAMAX™, B27, 5 μg/ml BSA, 1% penicillin/streptomycin) with 25 ng/ml FGF7, 25 ng/ml FGF10, 0.5 μM A83-01, 0.1 μM Compound E, 2 μM Retinoic acid, 0.1 μM GDC-0449, and 0.1 μM LDN-193189 for 2 days; then 50 ng/ml EGF, 50 ng/ml Exendin-4, 0.5 μM A83-01, 0.1 μM Compound E, 50 nM TPB, 0.1 LDN-193189, and 10 mM nicotinamide for another 3 days. After differentiation, the pancreatic endodermal progenitor (cPE) cell population was passaged with Accutase and cultured in cPE expansion medium (DMEM, 1% GLUTAMAX™, 1 xB27, 5 μg/ml BSA, 1% penicillin/streptomycin, 10 ng/ml bFGF, 50 ng/ml EGF, and 0.5 μM A83-01). Routinely, 0.5 μM thiazovivin was used during the first 12-24 hour period of each passage to prevent cell death after dissociation.

Maturation of Pancreatic Endodermal Progenitor (cPE) Cells into Pancreatic Beta-Like Cells (cPB Cells) In Vitro

The pancreatic endodermal progenitor (cPE cells) were differentiated into beta-like cells in the pancreatic maturation media with DMEM, 1% GLUTAMAX™, B27, 5 μg/ml BSA, and 1% penicillin/streptomycin, 50 ng/ml. Exendin-4, 1 μM A83-01, 10 μM forskolin, 10 μM dexamethasone, 10 mM nicotinamide, 0.1 μM Compound E, 50 μg/ml vitamin C, and 2 μM Bayk-8644 for 10d, and then cultured as 3D aggregates in low attachment plates for another 8-12 days.

Immunofluorescence Staining

Standard immune-staining was carried out as previously reported by Russ et al. (PLoS One 6, e25566 (2011)). For cell cluster staining primary and secondary antibodies were incubated overnight at 4° C. Secondary antibodies were Alexa Fluor conjugated (1:500-1000) (Invitrogen). Nuclei were visualized by Hoechst (Sigma-Aldrich) staining Images were captured using a Nikon Eclipse TE2000-U microscope or a SP5 confocal microscope. The primary antibodies used included SOX17, FOXA2, NANOG, HNF6, and HNF4A, with DAPI staining for nuclei. Representative images of cells from at least five independent experiments are shown in FIGS. 8B, 8C, 9G, and 9H. A representative image of at least three independent experiments is shown in FIGS. 9C, 9L, 10B, 10C, 10G, and 11B. A representative picture of three independent experiments is shown in FIGS. 8G, 11B, 11G and 11H. A representative image of two independent mice is shown in FIG. 10L.

Flow Cytometry

Cells were harvested at the indicated time points by Accutase treatment, fixed with 4% formaldehyde solution, and washed five times with ice-cold Perm/Wash buffer (BD). Cells were aliquoted and incubated individually or combinatorially with antibodies and isotype controls on ice for two hours. Cells were washed with Perm/Wash buffer for five times and incubated individually with Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated or Alexa Fluor 555-conjugated antibodies (1:500, Invitrogen) on ice for one hour. Cells were washed with Perm/Wash buffer for five times, re-suspended in 0.5 ml ice-cold PBS with 2% FBS, and analyzed by FACSCalibur and CellQuest software (BD). FlowJo software (Tree Star) was used to analyze the data.

Quantitative PCR

For quantitative PCR analysis, total RNA was extracted using the RNeasy Plus Mini Kit in combination with QIAshredder (Qiagen). First strand reverse transcription was performed with 1 μg RNA using iScript™ cDNA Synthesis Kit (BioRad). Quantitative PCR was taken out using iQ SYBR Green Supermix (Bio-Rad).

Kidney Capsule Transplantation

Mice used in this study were maintained according to protocols approved by the University of California, San Francisco, Committee on Laboratory Animal Resource Center. The kidney capsule transplantation was done as previously reported⁴⁰. Briefly, cells were collected from culture dishes by cell scraper, and injected under the renal capsule of immune-deficient NSG (NOD.Cg-Prkdc^(scid) Il2rg^(tmlWjl)/SzJ) male mice (six to ten week old). For transplantation assays of established cPF cell lines, hESC-derived definitive endoderm generated by differentiation for 1 day in RPMI containing 100 ng/ml Activin A and 50 ng/ml WNT3a, followed by 4 days in RPMI containing 0.2% FBS and 100 ng/ml Activin A served as control. Grafts were dissected and analyzed at the indicated time points.

Glucose Stimulated Insulin Secretion (GSIS) Assays

Cell were pre-incubated for 1 hour in Krebs-Ringer buffer (KRB), followed by incubation for 1 hour in KBR containing 2.8 mM glucose followed by 1 hour incubation in KRB containing 16.7 mM Glucose followed by 30 min in KRB containing 16.7 mM Glucose and 30 mM KCl Human C-peptide levels were quantified using an ultrasensitive ELISA kit (Mercodia; cross-reactivity with insulin and pro-insulin, 0.0006% and 1.8%, respectively).

Statistics.

Indicated P values were obtained using a two-tailed t-test, and all quantitative data are shown as mean±s.e.m. No statistical method was used to predetermine sample size. No samples were excluded. The experiments were not randomized. The investigators were not blinded to allocation during the experiments and outcome assessment.

Example 8

Direct Conversion of Human Fibroblasts into Definitive Endodermal Progenitor Cells

Human foreskin fibroblasts were transduced with non-integrating episomal reprogramming factors, OCT4, SOX2, KLF4, and a short hairpin RNA against p53 as described in Example 7. The cells were allowed to recover in fibroblast medium for four days, and then they were cultured in initiation medium containing epidermal growth factor (EGF), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and CHIR99021 (an activator of WNT signaling) to support cell proliferation (FIG. 8A). After seven days, the culture conditions were switched to endodermal conversion media containing CHIR99021 and high level of Activin A (100 ng/ml) to establish converted definitive endodermal progenitor (cDE) cells, based on previous studies demonstrating key roles for the Activin A and WNT signaling pathways in endodermal fate decision in vitro and in vivo (Stainier et al. (2002); Tian et al. (2006); D'Amour et al. (2005)). This basic endodermal conversion protocol gave rise to cell colonies with an epithelial morphology at day 21 to 28 (FIG. 8B). Colonies specifically stained for definitive endodermal progenitor markers SOX17 and FOXA2, but not for the pluripotency marker NANOG or primitive gut marker genes HNF4α and HNF6 (FIGS. 8C and 8G). As expected, control fibroblasts were negative for endodermal and pluripotency markers (FIG. 8G). To increase the efficiency of the endodermal conversion protocol, a small scale screening was performed of chemical compounds known to contain bioactive molecules capable of directing cell differentiation (Zhu et al. (2010). The addition of a combination of epigenetic modulators, including sodium butyrate (NaB, a histone deacetylase inhibitor), Parnate (Par, a histone demethylase inhibitor), and RG108 (RG, a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor), significantly improved the conversion efficiency by 2.5 fold (FIG. 8D). Additional screening using this improved condition revealed that 5′-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (NECA, an adenosine agonist) could further increase the conversion rate by 2-fold, resulting in 5-fold increase over the basal protocol (FIG. 8D). Notably, by employing this optimized condition it was possible to generate approximately fifty FOXA2 and SOX17 double-positive cDE colonies from 400,000 human fibroblasts (FIG. 8D). Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) revealed a gradual up-regulation of both SOX17 and FOXA2 gene transcripts starting at day 14 (FIG. 8E). In contrast, endogenous pluripotency gene transcripts NANOG and OCT4 were undetectable during the whole conversion process. Additional flow cytometric analysis revealed a similar gradual increase in FOXA2⁺ cells starting at day 21, without detection of cells immune-reactive for the pluripotency marker TRA-1-60 at any stage (Chan et al. (2009) (FIG. 8F). These data indicate that human fibroblasts can be directly converted into definitive endodermal progenitor cells without transitioning through a pluripotency state. Thus, the protocol described herein efficiently converts mesodermal human fibroblasts into endodermal progenitors employing the Cell-Activation and Signaling-Directed (CASD) transdifferentiation approach.

Example 9

Specification, Expansion and Characterization of Posterior Foregut-Like Progenitor Cells

This Example describes experiments designed to expand definitive endodermal progenitor cells by using a simple expansion media containing two small molecules, CHIR99021 (an activator of WNT signaling) and A83-01 (an inhibitor of TGFβ signaling) and two growth factors, EGF and bFGF that significantly promoted their expansion in serial passages (FIGS. 9A and 9B) Immunofluorescence analysis revealed strong expression of endodermal progenitor markers SOX17 and FOXA2, but also induction of primitive gut tube marker HNF4a and posterior foregut marker HNF6 (FIG. 9C), suggesting further specification towards posterior foregut-like progenitor cells (cPF cells). Employing these culture conditions, several posterior foregut-like progenitor cell lines were successfully established from independent experiments that could be further expanded using the same culture conditions (FIG. 9D). Posterior foregut-like progenitor cells proliferated rapidly with an average doubling time of 2 days. After 15 passages, this represents at least a trillion-fold increase in cell number (FIG. 9E). All four media supplements were important for cPF cell self-renewal (FIG. 9F) and expanded posterior foregut-like progenitor cells maintained their epithelial colony morphology as well as posterior foregut-like phenotype as determined by immunofluorescence staining for SOX17, FOXA2, HNF4a, HNF6, and SOX9 (FIGS. 9G and 9H).

During mouse embryonic development, Pdx1 expression is first detected at embryonic day 8.5 and marks the endodermal region that will give rise to the whole pancreas, as well as the common bile duct, distal stomach, and duodenal epithelium (Oliver-Krasinski & Stoffers (2008); Spence et al. (2009). Interestingly, PDX1 protein (FIG. 9H) was detected but not the more specific pancreatic endoderm (PE) marker NKX6.1 (data not shown). Consistently, qPCR analysis demonstrated the induced high level expression of multiple posterior foregut progenitor gene transcripts, including SOX17, FOXA2, HNF1A, HNF1B, HNF4A, HNF6, SOX9 and PDX1 in foregut-like progenitor cells when compared to parental fibroblasts (FIG. 9I; FIG. 9O-9P). In contrast, ectodermal marker gene SOX1, mesodermal marker gene BRACHYURY, and pluripotency marker genes OCT4 and NANOG were not induced (FIG. 9I). Collectively, these data confirm the specific posterior foregut identity of cPF cells.

The specific posterior foregut identity of cPF cells is further supported by the observations that cPF cells at both early and late passages possessed comparable capacities to differentiate towards the hepatic lineage (FIG. 9M). In contrast, cPF cells rarely gave rise to NKX2.1 positive or CDX2 positive cells that would suggest specification toward the lung (anterior fore gut endoderm) and gut (midgut endoderm) lineages, respectively (date not shown). Of note, cPF cells can be frozen and thawed with high recovery rate, an important advantage for many downstream assays and uses.

The genome stability of cPF cells was also evaluated using comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) arrays that did not demonstrate any gross chromosomal aberrations (data not shown). However, four copy number variants (CNVs) were detected in one human neonatal fibroblast-derived cPF cell line, as shown in Table 3.

TABLE 3 Copy number variation Sample CNV Location Type Annotations CRL-2097, 8 Chr2: 89185302- Amp N/A p6 89301214 Chr4: 69392576- Del UGT2B17, UGT2B15 69483277 Chr6: 259316- Del DUSP22 362290 Chr8: 39258894- Del ADAM5P, ADAM3A 39381514 Chr12: 9637323- Del N/A 9693948 Chr14: 106405703- Amp ADAM6, 106803307 NCRNA00226 Chr14: 106803307- Amp NCRNA00221 107214893 Chr15: 22318597- Del LOC727924, OR4M2, 22558756 OR4N4 cPF 12 Chr2: 89185302- Amp N/A (CRL-2097), 89301214 p17 Chr4: 69392576- Del UGT2817, UGT2815 69483277 Chr6: 259316- Del DUSP22 362290 Chr6: 78979161- Del N/A 79023328 Chr8: 39258894- Del ADAM5P, ADAM3A 39381514 Chr11: 55385617- Del OR4P4, OR4S2, 55450788 OR4C6 Chr12: 9637323- Del N/A 9693948 Chr14: 19794577- Amp POTEM, OR11H2, 20421677 0R4Q3 Chr14: 106405703- Amp ADAM6, 106803307 NCRNA00226 Chr14: 106803307- Amp NCRNA00221 107214893 Chr15: 22318597- Del LOC727924, OR4M2, 22558756 OR4N4 Chr15: 34735949- Del N/A 34785082 Copy number variation analysis revealed a total of 8 and 12 CNVs in neonatal fibroblasts and expanded cPF cells, respectively. The four new CNVs in expanded cPF cells are highlighted in Table 3 in bold with underlining.

These results are consistent with a recent report demonstrating that long-term cultures of bipotent stem cells from adult human liver are genomically-stable (Huch et al., Cell 160: 299-312 (2015)). Notably, the episomal reprogramming vectors were spontaneously lost in established cPF cell lines (FIG. 9J), thus overcoming a current safety concern associated with the integration of viral vector based reprogramming/conversion approaches. Another potential safety concern regarding cells with proliferative and stem cell capacity is their potential for tumor formation (Hentze et al., Stem Cell Res 2, 198-210 (2009)). Transplantation of expanded cPF cells under the kidney capsule of immune deficient mice did not result in tumor formation even after prolonged periods up to 24 weeks in vivo (n=10) (FIG. 9K). In contrast, all controls (hESC-derived endoderm progenitor cell populations) formed tumorigenic structures with big cysts and increased graft size seven weeks after transplantation (n=4) (FIG. 9K).

Immunofluorescence analysis of the cPF grafts demonstrated that epithelial structures (FIG. 9N) express characteristic endoderm markers, including E-cadherin, HNF4a, PDX1, SOX9, and cytokeratin (FIG. 9L). These results demonstrate that cPF cells can be greatly expanded in culture while maintaining their posterior foregut endodermal phenotype.

Example 10

Differentiation of cPF Cells into Expandable Pancreatic Endodermal Progenitor Cells with the Ability to Mature into Functional Beta-Like Cells In Vivo

Recently, several studies have reported the use of small molecules and growth factors to achieve differentiation of hESC-derived primitive gut tube and posterior foregut endoderm into pancreatic endoderm (Kroon et al. (2008); Rezania et al. (2012), Nostro et al. (2011); Kunisada et al. (2012)). Using a similar approach, different combinations of small molecules and growth factors were screened for differentiation of posterior foregut-like progenitor cells (cPF cells) into more committed pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells (cPE cells). A two-step protocol was optimized in which cPF cells were first exposed to FGF7, FGF10, A83-01, Compound-E (an inhibitor of Notch signaling), retinoic acid (RA), GDC-0449 (an antagonist of Sonic hedgehog), and LDN-193189 (an inhibitor of BMP4 signaling) for 2 days (FIG. 10A). Subsequently, differentiating cells were treated with EGF, Exendin-4 (an agonist of glucagon-like peptide-1), A83-01, LDN-193189, phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate (PBDu; an activator of protein kinase C), Compound-E, and Nicotinamide (an inhibitor of polyADP-ribose synthetase) for another 3 days (FIG. 10A). Resulting cPE cells continued to express high levels of FOXA2, HNF6, SOX9, and PDX1, as is expected for PE progenitor cells (Seymour & Sander (2011); Pan & Wright (2011)) (FIG. 10B). Most importantly, this treatment resulted in the generation of PDX1 and NKX6.1 double-positive cells (FIG. 10C). NKX6.1 expression in common PDX1⁺ pancreatic progenitors (before NKX6.1 expression becomes further restricted to beta cells) marks their commitment to a more specific endocrine-/ductal-bi-potent progenitor cell type (Henseleit et al. (2005)). Notably, hESC-derived NKX6.1 and PDX1 double-positive PE progenitor cells have been shown to be able to give rise to functional beta cells after transplantation (Kelly et al. (2011)). FACS analysis revealed approximately 78% of PDX1 positive cells, and 17.3% PDX1 and NKX6.1 double-positive cells within cPE populations at passage 1 (FIG. 10D).

Next, the effect of cPF expansion media was tested on cPE cultures in an attempt to expand posterior foregut-like progenitor cells (cPE cells) in a similar fashion. However, cPE colonies easily detached from the plate under the cPF expansion conditions. Omission of CHIR99021 and increasing the EGF concentration to 50 ng/ml reversed this effect and promoted cPE cell expansion pursuant to the method illustrated in FIG. 10E. Under this optimized culture condition, cPE cells were expanded more than two hundred million fold with an approximate doubling time of 3 days for up to 14 passages (FIG. 10F). Of note, expanded cPE cells maintained their bi-potent progenitor identity as evidenced by the presence of PDX1 and NKX6.1 double-positive cells at passage 12 (FIGS. 10G and 10H). Consistently, qPCR results demonstrated the down-regulation of early endodermal marker gene SOX17. The pan-endodermal marker genes FOXA2 and HNF4A, as well as many pancreatic and endocrine marker genes, including HNF6, PTF1A, HLXB9, and NGN3, were up regulated (FIG. 10I). More robust expression was noted for other critical markers also highly expressed in mature beta cells, including PDX1, NKX2.2, and NKX6.1.

To explore whether expanded pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells (cPE cells) can further mature into functional beta cells in vivo, cPE cells were transplanted under the kidney capsule of immune deficient mice. After 15-16, 19-20 and 23-24 weeks, human C-peptide was detected after a glucose challenge in the blood of 62.5%, 75%, and 86.6% of mice analyzed, respectively, albeit at low levels (FIG. 10J). In addition, a 2.1 fold increase in human C-peptide was detected in the serum of mice bearing 23-week old grafts after glucose challenge when compared to fasting levels, a finding illustrating that cPE grafts become functional upon transplantation into host animals (FIG. 10K). Starting at 15 weeks post transplantation, insulin-expressing beta-like cells and PDX1 positive pancreatic progenitor cells were found in some graft sections, while other regions were negative for these and other pancreas markers (FIG. 10L). Insulin-positive cells co-expressed the critical beta cell transcription factors NKX6.1 and PDX1, but did not show expression of other endocrine hormones (FIG. 10L). In summary, the data provided herein demonstrates that cPF cells can be differentiated into cPE cells, which can be greatly expanded in vitro while maintaining their specific phenotype. Importantly, cPE cells differentiate further in vivo towards insulin-producing, single-hormonal cells capable of releasing Insulin in response to glucose challenge.

Example 11

Maturation of cPE Cells into Insulin-Producing, Glucose-Responsive Pancreatic Beta-Like Cells In Vitro

Full maturation towards glucose responsive cells is optimally illustrated by transplantation of in vitro differentiated pancreas endoderm progenitor cells into immune compromised mice. To address the question of whether the cPE cells generated as described herein can develop into functional beta-like cells under cell culture conditions, cPE cells were incubated in a basal pancreatic differentiation media that has been shown to promote hESC/iPSC-derived pancreatic progenitor differentiation into insulin-producing cells (Kunisada et al. (2012)). This media includes A83-01, Nicotinamide, Forskolin (an activator of adenylyl cyclase), Dexamethasone (an agonist of glucocorticoid receptor), and Exendin-4 (FIG. 11A). While C-peptide positive cells expressing high levels of PDX1 were consistently observed after 10-14 days in culture (FIG. 11B), the relatively low number of cells (˜0.5%) indicated further optimization of conditions may improve the frequency of conversion to functional beta-like cells. Chemical compounds able to promote differentiation of definitive endoderm (Borowiak et al. (2009)) and PDX1⁺ progenitors (Chen et al. (2009) have been identified previously. However, molecules directing the final steps of differentiation into beta-like cells have not been uncovered, likely due to difficulties in generating and maintaining sufficient numbers of differentiation-competent pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells.

A chemical screen was performed with the intent of identifying factors that would result in the more efficient development of C-peptide positive cells from expanded cPE cells. These experiments revealed that supplementation of the basal pancreatic differentiation media individually with Compound-E (an inhibitor of Notch signaling), Vitamin C, or BayK-8644 (a Ca²⁺ channel agonist), were effective in increasing the percentage of C-peptide positive cells (FIG. 11C). Combined treatment with these compounds had an additive effect (Exendin-4, A83-01, Nicotinamide, Forskolin, Dexamethasone, Compound-E, Vitamin C, and Bayk-8644), resulting in the formation of up to 7% C-peptide positive cells (FIG. 11C).

Insulin-producing cells generated from ESCs/iPSCs under published culture conditions are mostly immature as evidenced by co-expression of endocrine hormones, lack of crucial beta cell transcription factors and the absence of insulin secretion in response to physiological levels of glucose (Nostro & Keller (2012)). The maturation defects may be partly due to the lack of 3D organization normally present in islets of Langerhans (Sasai (2013)).

Hence, free floating cell aggregates of cPE cells were generated that had first been incubated as 2D cultures for 10 days in the improved maturation media. The majority of cells within the aggregates expressed the pan-pancreas marker PDX1 after 8-12 days of 3D culture (FIGS. 11D, 11F and 11G). In addition, many insulin-expressing cells co-expressing key beta cell transcription factors including NKX6.1, NKX2.2, and NeuroD were detected (FIGS. 11D and 11G). In contrast, insulin-expressing cells only rarely co-stained for the endocrine progenitor marker NGN3 or other endocrine hormones, including Glucagon (GCG) and Somatostatin (SST) (FIGS. 11D and 11G). Of note, all insulin-positive cells also stained for a human specific C-peptide antibody, thus excluding possible insulin uptake from the media (FIG. 11H).

Considering the expression of key beta cell markers, these cells were designated converted pancreatic beta-like cells (cPB cells). One of the distinguishing hallmarks of pancreatic beta cells is the ability to release insulin upon glucose stimulation. Importantly, glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) assays demonstrated that in vitro generated cPB cells released insulin (as detected by human C-peptide expression) in response to physiological levels of glucose (n=7, fold increase 2.1±1.3, range 0.9-4.8) (FIG. 11E). Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the in vitro differentiation protocol described herein directed conversion of human fibroblasts into beta-like cells that respond to physiological levels of glucose.

Example 12

Improved Method for Generating Pancreatic Beta-Like Cells from Pancreatic Endodermal Progenitor Cells

This Example describes improved methods for efficiently generating large numbers of pancreatic beta-like cells that remain functional after transplantation as demonstrated by significantly higher levels of circulating human C-peptide in the serum of glucose-challenged mice when compared to fasted controls.

Materials and Methods

Pancreatic endodermal progenitor (cPE) cells were differentiated into pancreatic beta-like cells (cPB) by successive exposure to different media using a process referred to herein as Protocol 2 (FIG. 12A). In a first step, pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells were cultured in the pancreatic maturation media containing DMEM, 1% GLUTAMAX™, B27, 5 μg/ml BSA, and 1% penicillin/streptomycin, 10 μg/ml Heparin, 10 μM ZnSO4, 10 μM Alk5 inhibitor II (Enzo, Farmingdale, N.Y.); 0.1 μM LDN-193189, 1 μM T3, 0.1 μM Compound E, 2 μM Bay K-8644, 0.25 mM vitamin C for seven days.

In a second step, the cells were cultured in media containing DMEM, 1% GLUTAMAX™, B27, 5 μg/ml BSA, and 1% penicillin/streptomycin, 10 μg/ml Heparin, 10 μM ZnSO4, 10 μM Alk5 inhibitor II, 1 μM T3, lmM N-cysteine, 10 μM 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid, 2 μM R428, 2 μM BayK-8644, 0.25 mM Vitamin C for another seven days.

The cells were then cultured as 3D aggregates in low-attachment plates for another seven days.

Results

In addition to the Notch inhibitor that had already been employed in the methods described above, Vitamin C and BayK-8644 were added, and as shown in FIG. 12B, both compounds promoted expression of the INSULIN gene. Vitamin C and BayK-8644 also increased the number of C-peptide positive cells that co-expressed key beta cell transcription factors PDX1 and NKX6.1 (FIG. 12C). C-peptide positive cells rarely co-stained for other endocrine hormones, including Glucagon (GCG) and Somatostatin (SST) (FIG. 12C). Quantitative

FACS analysis revealed the formation of about 15% monohormonal C-pep+GCG-SSTcells, with only few polyhormonal cells (FIGS. 12D and 12E).

To identify cells with Insulin gene expression, cPE cells were infected with a lentivirus containing a minimal Insulin promoter driving a fluorescence reporter expression (FIG. 12G) and the cPB cells generated therefrom were FACS sorted at 21 days after introduction of the lentiviral reporter construct and conversion via Protocol 2. FIG. 12H shows the results of a qPCR analysis of the sorted cPB cells for the expression of beta cell marker genes, including INS, PDX1, NKX6.1, NKX2.2, NEUROD1, PAX6, RFX6, MAFA, GCK, PCSK1, KIR6.2, SUR1, UCN3 and SLC30A8 in comparison to human islets. As shown, while a few genes exhibited slightly reduced levels of expression, the cPB cells generated by Protocol 2 had levels of expression for most genes that were comparable to those observed for human islets.

Glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) assays conducted with in vitro generated cPB cells revealed a robust release of insulin in response to physiological levels of glucose (n=7, fold increase=2.0) (FIG. 12F). The stimulation index, as calculated by the ratio of insulin secreted in high glucose to low glucose, was similar among the cPB cells, hESC-derived beta-like cells, and primary human islets. Thus, protocol 2 efficiently generates functional pancreatic beta-like cells in vitro.

These in vitro generated cPBs were then evaluate for in vivo functioning by transplantation into immunodeficient mice (FIG. 13A). Importantly, while control human fibroblasts did not evoke any response, significant glucose stimulated insulin secretion was detected in cPB-transplanted mice two months after transplantation (FIG. 13B) Immunofluorescence analysis of cPB grafts revealed the presence of many islet-like structures containing Insulin-expressing pancreatic beta-like cells. C-peptide positive cells co-express critical beta cell transcription factors PDX1 and NKX6.1, but did not exhibit expression of other endocrine hormones GCG and SST (FIG. 13C). Specific ablation of the endogenous beta cells by the toxin Streptozotocin (STZ) resulted in rapid onset of overt diabetes in all control animals, while cPB bearing mice remained euglycemic (FIG. 13D).

After 5 weeks post-STZ treatment cPB grafts were removed by unilateral nephrectomy. Nephrectomized mice rapidly developed diabetes, demonstrating that human fibroblast-derived cPB cells controlled glucose levels in STZ treated mice. In summary, these results directly demonstrate that cPB cells transplanted into surrogate mice are functional in vivo and protect mice from diabetes.

Moreover, committed pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells (cPE) cells generated from adult human fibroblasts were differentiated into pancreatic beta-like cells at efficiencies comparable to neonatal derived cPB cells, with only few double hormone positive cells (FIGS. 14A, 14B and 14C). In addition, human adult fibroblasts derived cPB cells are functional as demonstrated by their glucose stimulated insulin secretion (FIG. 14D).

Example 13

Materials and Methods

Undifferentiated MEL1 INS^(GFP/W) reporter cells (Micallef et al, 2012) were maintained on mouse embryo fibroblast feeder layers (Millipore) in hESC media as described (Guo et al, 2013b). Suspension-based differentiations were carried out as follows. Briefly, confluent cultures were dissociated into single cell suspension by incubation with TrypLE (Gibco). Cells were counted and each well of 6-well low-adherence plates were seeded with 5.5×10⁶ cells in 5.5 ml hES media supplemented with 10 ng/ml Activin A (R&D systems) and 10 ng/ml HeregulinB1 (Peprotech). Plates were placed on an orbital shaker at 100 rpm to induce sphere formation, as described (Schulz et al, 2012). To induce definitive endoderm differentiation, aggregates were collected 24 hours later in a 50 ml falcon tube, allowed to settle by gravity, washed once with PBS and re-suspended in d1 media (RPMI (Gibco) containing 0.2% FBS, 1:5000 ITS (Gibco), 100 ng/ml Activin A, and 50 ng/ml WNT3a (R&D systems)). Clusters from 3 wells were combined into 2 wells at this point and distributed into fresh low-attachment plates in 5.5 ml d1 media. Media thereafter was changed daily, by removing either 4.5 ml media (at the end of d1) or 5.5 ml media the following days and adding back 5.5 ml fresh media until day 9. After day 9, only 5 ml of media was removed and added daily.

Differentiation employing published protocols has been described (Schulz et al, 2012; Rezania of al, 2012). Media in a simplified differentiation protocol described herein includes or consists of, d2: RPMI containing 0.2% FBS, 1:2000 ITS, and 10 ng/ml Activin A; d3: RPMI containing 0.2% FBS, 1:1000 ITS, 2.5 μM TGFbi IV (CalBioChem), and 25 ng/ml KGF (R&D systems); d4-5: RPMI containing 0.4% FBS, 1:1000 ITS, and 25 ng/ml KGF. d6-7: DMEM (Gibco) with 25 mM Glucose containing 1:100 B27 (Gibco), 3 nM TTNBP (Sigma); d8: DMEM with 25 mM Glucose containing 1:100 B27, 3 nM TTNBP, and 50 ng/ml EGF (R&D systems); d9: DMEM with 25 mM Glucose containing 1:100 B27, 50 ng/ml EGF, and 50 ng/ml KGF. d10-14: DMEM with 25 mM Glucose containing 1:100 B27, 5000 nM LDN-193189 (Stemgent), 30 nM TATA-Binding Protein (TBP; Millipore), 1000 nM Alki II (Axxora), and 25 ng/ml KGF; d15-21: DMEM with 2.8 mM Glucose containing 1:100 GLUTAMAX™ (Gibco) and 1:100 NEAA (Gibco). Human islets were obtained from Prodo Laboratories or the UCSF Islets and Cellular Production Facility.

Mice

NOD.Cg-Prkdcscid Il2rgtm1Wjl/SzJ mice (NSG) were obtained from Jackson Laboratories. Mice used in this study were maintained according to protocols approved by the University of California, San Francisco Committee on Laboratory Animal Resource Center. For kidney capsule grafts, approximately 5.0×10⁶ hESC differentiated cells in spheres and 4000 human islet equivalents were transplanted as described (Russ & Efrat, 2011; Szot et al, 2007). For glucose-induced insulin secretion, mice were fasted overnight and serum was collected before and after intraperitoneal administration of 3 g/kg D-glucose solution. For induction of diabetes, mice were administered 35 mg/kg streptozotocin via intraperitoneal injection for 5 days. Graft bearing kidneys were removed for immunofluorescence analysis. No statistical method was employed to determine sample size, mice were not randomized and analysis was not blinded.

Cell Sorting and Flow Cytometric Analysis

Briefly, spheres were collected and allowed to settle by gravity. Clusters were washed once in PBS and dissociated by gentle pipetting after 12-15 minutes incubation in Accumax (Innovative Cell Technologies). For sorting, cell suspensions were filtered and re-suspended in FACS buffer consisting of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (UCSF cell culture facility) containing 2 mM EDTA (Ambion) and 1% BSA (Sigma). Dead cells were excluded by DAPI (Sigma) staining Cell sorting was performed on a FACS Aria II (BD Bioscience). For flow-based analysis, dissociated cells were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde (Electron Microscopy Science) for 15 minutes at room temperature, followed by two washes in PBS. Samples were either stored at 4 C or immediately stained with directly conjugated antibodies. Data analysis was performed with FlowJo software. Mouse Glucagon and mouse human C-peptide antibodies were conjugated in-house by the UCSF Antibody Core and/or with Antibody Labeling Kits (Molecular Probes) according to manufacturer's instructions. Commercially available directly conjugated antibodies, i.e., antibodies Human PAX6-Alexa647, Islet-1-PE, NKX6.1-Alexa647, NKX6.1-PE, Chromogranin A-PE, NeuroD1-Alexa647, PDX1-PE, and Ki67-Alexa647, were from BD Bioscience.

Electron Microscopic Analysis

Spheres were fixed by adding 37° C. 0.1M sodium cacodylate solution (Sigma) containing 2% paraformaldehyde (Electron Microscopy Science) and 2.5% glutaraldehyde (Electron Microscopy Science), 3 mM CaCl₂ (Sigma), final pH 7.4. Spheres were then transferred to 4° C. for approximately 18 hours, followed by standard processing and analysis by the Electron Microscope Lab/Diabetes Center Microscope Core.

Immunofluorescence Analysis

Spheres were fixed for 15-30 minutes at room temperature with 4% paraformaldehyde, followed by multiple washes in PBS. Whole mount staining was performed in suspension, by first blocking overnight at 4° C. in blocking buffer consisting of CAS-block (Invitrogen) with 0.2% TritonX (Fisher). Primary antibodies were incubated overnight at 4° C. in blocking buffer, followed by washes in PBS containing 0.1% Tween-20 (PBS-T, Sigma) and incubation in appropriate secondary antibodies diluted in PBS-T overnight at 4° C. The next day, clusters were washed in PBS-T followed by PBS and mounted with Vectashield (Vector) on glass slides. For sectioning of clusters, spheres were embedded in 2% Agar (Sigma), followed by dehydration, paraffin embedding, and sectioning. Cut sections were rehydrated and treated with an antigen retrieval solution (Biogenex) before incubation with primary antibodies overnight at 4° C. in blocking buffer. The next day, sections were washed 3 times in PBS-T and incubated with appropriate secondary antibodies for 30-40 minutes at room temperature in PBS-T. Appropriate Alexa-conjugated secondary antibodies were purchased from JAX or Molecular Probes and used at 1:500 dilutions. Slides were washed in PBS-T and PBS before mounting in Vectashield. Nuclei were visualized with DAPI. Images were acquired using a Leica SP5 microscope or a Zeiss ApoTome. Primary antibodies were employed as indicated in TABLE 4.

TABLE 4 Antigen Species Dilution Manufacturer Human C-peptide Mouse 1:200 Chemicon Human C-peptide Rat  1:1000 DSHB Insulin Mouse  1:1000 Sigma Insulin Guinea pig 1:500 DAKO Glucagon Mouse  1:1000 Sigma NKX6.1 Mouse 1:100 DSHB NKX2.2 Mouse 1:20  DSHB PDX1 Goat 1:200 R&D systems Human NEUROG3 Sheep 1:300 R&D systems Ki67 Rabbit 1:100 NovoCastra qPCR Analysis

Total RNA was isolated with TRIZOL (Sigma) or micro/mini RNAeasy kit (Qiagen) and reverse transcribed using the iScript cDNA Kit (Bio-Rad) according to manufacturer's instructions. qPCR analysis was performed on an ABI 7900 HT Fast Real-Time PCR System (Applied Biosystems) and CFX Connect Real Time System (Biorad) using standard protocols. Primers were Taqman Probes (Applied Biosystems) and/or as published previously (Liu et al, 2014). P-values were calculated using a two-tailed student's t-test.

Content Analysis

Insulin, human C-peptide and proinsulin analyses were performed by measuring an aliquot of acidic ethanol lysed clusters with commercially available ELISA kits (Insulin Cat. 80-INSMR-CH10, human C-peptide cat. 80-CPTHU-CH01, and proinsulin Cat. 80-PINHUT-CH01; all from Alpco). Total DNA was quantified by PicoGreen (Invitrogen) assay and normalized to the percentage of C-peptide-positive cells in each sample.

Western Blotting for Proinsulin/Insulin

Cell lysates were resolved on 4-12% acrylamide gradient SDS-PAGE gels (NuPAGE, Invitrogen) normalized to cellular DNA (Quant-iT dsDNA, Molecular Probes). The samples were then electrotransferred to nitrocellulose membranes and immunoblotted with guinea pig anti-insulin, which recognizes both proinsulin and insulin, as previously described (Haataja et al, 2013) Immunoblotting with anti-tubulin was used as a confirmatory loading control. HRP-conjugated secondary antibodies (Jackson ImmunoResearch) were used for enhanced chemiluminescence detection (Millipore). The analysis was performed four times with isolated human islets used as a positive control.

Glucose Stimulated Insulin Secretion

Human islets or hES-derived spheres were transferred into tubes and washed twice with Krebs-Ringer Bicarbonate buffer (KRB) containing 2.8 mM Glucose. Samples were incubated for one hour in 2.8 mM glucose containing KRB to allow equilibration of cells. The 2.8 mM buffer was removed and replaced with fresh KRB containing 2.8 mM glucose for one hour followed by incubation for another hour in KRB containing 16.7 mM glucose. After the incubation period, buffers were collected for human C-peptide-specific ELISA analysis using a commercially available kit (Alpco).

Example 14

Pancreatic Differentiation of hESCs Using a Large-Scale Culture System Results in Two Distinct Subsets of Insulin-Producing Cells

To generate pancreatic beta cells from human PSC, a scalable three-dimensional suspension culture system was developed that built upon previously reported methods (Schulz et al, 2012; Rezania et al, 2012) (FIG. 15A). To monitor the generation of live insulin-producing cells and facilitate their isolation, the recently published INS^(GFP/W) reporter cell line (Micallef et al, 2012) was utilized in which green fluorescence protein (GFP) expression is under the control of the endogenous insulin promoter. Using this differentiation protocol, GFP reporter expression was readily observed at day 13 and increased thereafter, resulting in an average of 37±8% GFP positive cells between days 19-24 (FIG. 15B-D). The validity of GFP as an accurate substitute for insulin was verified by staining with an insulin-specific antibody, which revealed an even higher percentage of insulin-producing cells (up to 60%) likely due to delayed accumulation of the fluorescence marker (FIG. 15E). Similar results were obtained with an antibody specific to human C-peptide, excluding antibody reactivity due to insulin uptake from culture media (FIG. 15E). Co-staining for human C-peptide and glucagon (GCG), a hormone normally produced by alpha cells, showed that 4.3% and 13.2% of all cells exhibited a polyhormonal phenotype at day 13 and day 19, respectively (FIG. 15F). Co-staining for C-peptide and NKX6.1 at day 20 indicated the presence of some double positive pancreatic beta cells (FIG. 15G). Quantitative flow cytometry analysis revealed that the proportion of INSULIN and NKX6.1 double-positive pancreatic beta cells increased from less than 2.5% at day 13 to approximately 12% cells at day 19 of total cells (FIG. 15G). Ultrastructural analysis of differentiated cultures showed cells containing secretory vesicles with an electron dense core surrounded by an electron light halo (FIG. 15H), a morphology reminiscent of insulin vesicles that are found in human pancreatic beta cells. The majority of cells, however, exhibited a mixture of secretory granules usually found in non-beta cells of human pancreas preparations (FIG. 15H). Thus, differentiation experiments employing published protocols (Schulz et al, 2012; Rezania et al, 2012) result in the efficient generation of two distinct insulin-producing cell populations: INS⁺ cells that do not co-express the critical TF NKX6.1 and manifest as polyhormonal cells, and INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ beta cells that more closely resemble human pancreatic beta cells. Notably, INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ beta cells are absent from cultures at earlier time points but appear and increase in number at later stages of differentiation, indicating that they are derived from a distinct progenitor cell type.

Example 15

Defining the Temporal Activities of Individual Signaling Factors to Efficiently Generate PDX1+ and PDX1+/NKX6.1+ Pancreas Progenitor Populations while Preventing Precocious Induction of Endocrine Differentiation

To characterize the type of progenitors present in differentiating cultures at the point of endocrine induction, a detailed time course analysis was performed for the expression of pancreatic markers PDX1, NKX6.1, NEUROG3, GCG and INS (FIG. 16). High expression of the progenitor marker PDX1 was efficiently induced and maintained starting one day after the combined addition of Retinoic Acid (R), the SHH inhibitor Cyclopamine (C), and the BMP inhibitor Noggin (N) to the culture media (referred to as RCN, Day 6, FIGS. 16A and B). Subsequent treatment with epidermal growth factor (EGF), KGF and N (EKN) resulted in the robust generation of PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ double positive cells reaching 67% of the total population at day 11 (FIGS. 16A and B). Immunofluorescence analysis revealed that the RCN cocktail of factors widely used to generate pancreatic endoderm also induces precocious expression of NEUROG3 in PDX1⁺ pancreatic progenitors. Indeed, the expression of NEUROG3 can be detected as early as day 6, when NKX6.1 protein is absent from all cells (FIGS. 16A and B). Consequentially, insulin-expressing cells that are first detected 4 days after NEUROG3 induction (starting at day 10), do not co-express NKX6.1 and are mostly polyhormonal (FIGS. 15F and G, and FIG. 16C). In contrast, INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ double positive pancreatic beta cells can be readily detected only at later time points (day 19, FIG. 15G), indicating that these cells differentiate from PDX1/NKX6.1 double positive progenitor cells. It was thus expected that robust generation of PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor cells prior to induction of NEUROG3 would allow efficient generation of pancreatic beta cells in vitro. To determine which of the factors used between days 6-8 in the original protocol (R, C, and N) were responsible for the induction of PDX1, NKX6.1 and NEUROG3, spheres were incubated with each of the factors alone or in different combinations over days 6-8 (FIG. 17A). Basal media with B27 but lacking any additional factors served as the control condition. At the end of day 8, each of these six conditions was further subdivided into three different treatment groups: media composition remained the same as during days 6-8 (group 1), or were changed either to EK (group 2), or to EKN (group 3), resulting in 18 individual experimental conditions (FIG. 17A). Spheres cultured under each condition were analyzed at day 9.5 by flow cytometry to quantify the expression of PDX1 and NKX6.1, and by conventional immunofluorescence analysis for NKX6.1 and NEUROG3 expression. As shown in FIG. 17B, spheres within group 1 that had been exposed to retinoic acid during days 6-8, either alone or in combination with other factors (conditions 4, 5, and 6), exhibited highly efficient generation of PDX1 positive progenitors (>88%), while addition of C or N alone (conditions 2 and 3) did not result in enhanced generation of PDX1⁺ cells over base media alone. NKX6.1 was induced only weakly in all group 1 conditions, with the exception of RC (condition 5), which produced 45% PDX1/NKX6.1 double positive cells. NKX6.1 expression was also strongly induced when cells were exposed to retinoic acid alone or in combination with other factors followed by treatment with EK (group 2) or EKN (group 3) (FIGS. 17B and C, conditions 10-12 and 16-18). Endocrine differentiation, marked by NEUROG3 expression, was noted only when spheres had been exposed to N, either between days 5-9.5 (FIG. 17C, conditions 3, 6, 9, and 12) or starting at the end of day 8 (FIG. 17C, group 3, conditions 13-18). Very few NEUROG3⁺ cells were detected in all other conditions (FIG. 17C, conditions 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, and 11). qPCR analysis at day 8 of NEUROG3 and its downstream target NKX2.2 mRNA transcripts revealed significantly lower levels of these endocrine markers with R treatment when compared to the commonly employed RCN condition (FIG. 16D). Notably, addition of vitamin C, recently shown to reduce endocrine differentiation in hESCs (Rezania et al, 2014), did not significantly lower NGN3 or NKX2.2 transcripts in the suspension culture system during RCN or R treatment (FIG. 16D). Taken together, these results indicate that R followed by EK treatment leads to highly efficient generation of PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitors (90%) and that the formation of bona fide NEUROG3 positive endocrine precursors is induced by treatment with N (FIG. 17 A-C, condition 10, green gates). Thus, by defining the temporal activities of individual signaling factors alone and in combination, transcription factor expression patterns can be induced that are characteristic of different human embryonic pancreatic progenitor cells types (PDX1⁺ and PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitors) without precocious induction of endocrine differentiation.

Example 16

Recapitulating Human Pancreas Organogenesis to Generate Endocrine Progenitors

This improved and simplified differentiation protocol provides the basis for subsequent efficient formation of insulin-producing cells in suspension (FIG. 18A). Endocrine differentiation in PDX1/NKX6.1 double positive cells was induced by exposure to a cocktail of factors consisting of TBP (T), ALK inhibitor (A), N, and K, (TANK) which have previously been shown to activate NEUROG3 expression while maintaining high expression of PDX1 and NKX6.1 (Rezania et al, 2012; Nostro et al, 2011) (FIGS. 18A and B). While NEUROG3 protein was undetectable before TANK treatment (FIG. 18C, day 9), cells exhibiting nuclear accumulation of NEUROG3 protein appeared as early as one day following TANK treatment (FIG. 18C, day 10). Thus, expression of the pro-endocrine factor NEUROG3 is rapidly induced through TANK treatment once PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitors are specified (FIG. 18B, day 9). In contrast to the near-uniform generation of PDX1⁺ and PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor populations following appropriate stimulation, endocrine differentiation appears to be confined to a smaller population of cells. This observation can be explained by the very short half-life of the NEUROG3 protein (Roark et al, 2012), which allows only transient detection of this marker in cells undergoing endocrine differentiation. NEUROG3⁺ cells, however, continued to be present when clusters were exposed to the endocrine differentiation cocktail for 5 days (FIG. 18C, day 14), indicating that endocrine cells were being generated throughout this period. To further characterize the progenitors present in the cultures at the initiation of endocrine differentiation, expression of NKX2.2, a downstream target of NEUROG3, was analyzed. NKX2.2 has recently been reported to have distinct expression patterns during pancreatic organogenesis in mouse and human (Jennings et al, 2013). While NKX2.2 is readily detectable in mouse pancreatic progenitor cells before NEUROG3 expression, NKX2.2 protein is only observed after endocrine commitment during human pancreas development. Similarly, NKX2.2 protein expression was detected only after endocrine differentiation was initiated at day 10, but not before in either PDX1⁺ or PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitors (FIG. 18C). Of note, some NKX2.2⁺ cells at day 10 co-express NEUROG3, and increasing numbers of NKX2.2⁺/NEUROG3⁻ cells are found at later time points (FIG. 18C). These data indicate that NKX2.2 could serve as a lineage tracer for human cells that have undergone endocrine differentiation induced by transient NEUROG3 expression. In summary, a novel differentiation strategy has been established that faithfully recapitulates human pancreas organogenesis and allows for the precise control over the generation of PDX1⁺ and PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitors.

Example 17

Efficient Generation of PDX1+/NKX6.1+ Pancreatic Progenitor Cells Prior to Endocrine Induction Results in Glucose Responsive Pancreatic Beta Cells

To test whether correctly specified PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ progenitor cells undergo differentiation towards INS⁺/NKX6.1⁺ double positive pancreatic beta cells, spheres differentiated using the new method described herein were transferred into a basal media without additional growth factors and the establishment of pancreatic beta cells was monitored (FIG. 19A). The percentage of GFP⁺ cells increased from day 13 to day 19, reaching an average of 23±6% human C-peptide-positive cells at days 19-21, likely reflecting continuous generation of insulin-producing cells for about 4 days after removal of NEUROG3-inducing factors (FIG. 19B, C) Immunofluorescence analysis of insulin-producing cells revealed co-expression and nuclear localization of TFs critical for pancreatic beta cell function (PDX1, NKX6.1 and NKX2.2), but very few polyhormonal cells (FIG. 19D). Flow cytometry analysis of differentiated clusters showed a high percentage of total cells (black gates) and C-peptide positive pancreatic beta cells (green gates) co-staining for PDX1, NKX6.1, NXK2.2, ISL1, PAX6, NeuroD1, and Chromogranin A (CHGA) (FIG. 19E). These markers are normally found in both pancreatic progenitors and mature pancreatic beta cells. Quantification of C-peptide pancreatic beta cells co-staining for PDX1, NKX6.1, NKX2.2, ISL1, NEUROD1, PAX6 and Chromogranin A showed 84±7%, 75±20%, 92±5%, 86±5%, 95±4%, 93±5%, and 93±4% double positive cells, respectively (FIG. 19F). Notably, only 3.2% of all differentiated cells co-expressed C-peptide and the hormone glucagon (FIG. 19E, red gate). An important hallmark of mature human pancreatic beta cells is their restricted proliferative capacity. While 9.1±3.7% of C-peptide-negative cells were actively proliferating, only 0.5±0.6% of C-peptide-positive pancreatic beta cells co-stain for the proliferation marker Ki67, indicating their terminal differentiation state (FIGS. 20A and B). Thus, the improved differentiation strategy described herein results in the predominant generation of post-mitotic, insulin-producing pancreatic beta cells that co-express critical pancreatic beta cell markers.

To further characterize gene expression in pancreatic beta cells at days 19-20, advantage was taken of the GFP live marker to compare sorted GFP⁺ pancreatic beta cells and GFP-populations to purified human islets. hESC-derived pancreatic beta cells showed high levels of insulin gene transcripts, comparable to cadaveric islet preparations, while GFP-negative populations exhibit only insignificant levels of the hormone (FIG. 21A). Transcript levels for two other hormones (GCG and SST) were also detected in GFP cells, likely due to contamination by the small number of polyhormonal cells also expressing the GFP reporter (FIGS. 21A and 5D and E). Consistent with the immunofluorescence analysis (FIG. 19D), transcripts for the TFs PDX1, NKX6.1 and NKX2.2 normally found in both progenitor and mature pancreatic beta cells were expressed at comparable levels in GFP-negative, GFP-positive, and islet cells (FIG. 21B). Transcripts for the mature human pancreatic beta cell transcription factors MAFA and MAFB were robustly expressed in human islets and enriched in pancreatic beta cells compared to GFP-populations. MAFB transcript levels in pancreatic beta cells were similar to human islets; MAFA expression levels were slightly lower (FIG. 21B). Other genes important for human pancreatic beta cell functionality, including the KATP channel components Potassium Inwardly-Rectifying Channel, Subfamily J, Member 11 (KIR6.2 also known as KCJN11) and ATP-Binding Cassette, Sub-Family C, Member 8 (SUR1 also known as ABCC8), the glucose metabolism enzyme Glucokinase (GCK, also known as HK4), and the Prohormone Convertase 1/3 (PC1/3) necessary for insulin biosynthesis, were enriched in GFP-positive pancreatic beta cells at levels similar to or exceeding those found in human islets (FIG. 21C). In contrast, mRNA levels for the progenitor marker SOX9 were reduced in pancreatic beta cells compared to GFP-progenitors (FIG. 21D). The somewhat higher SOX9 expression in human islets is likely the result of contamination with Sox9-positive duct cells. Thus, gene expression analysis indicated that hESC-derived pancreatic beta cells possess the molecular machinery necessary for pancreatic beta cell function, including insulin biosynthesis and glucose metabolism. Further investigations revealed that day 19 pancreatic beta cells contain 2.5±1.2 ug, 0.32±0.12 ug, and 310±143 ng insulin, human c-peptide, and proinsulin per μg DNA, respectively (FIG. 21E). These values are comparable to about 2.8 ug insulin, about 0.55 ug c-peptide, and about 150 ng proinsulin per μg DNA for human islets, as recently published (Rezania et al, 2014). Western blot analysis for proinsulin and mature insulin further confirmed efficient insulin protein processing in hESC-derived pancreatic beta cells, reaching 59±2% of the extent of processing observed in purified human islets (FIGS. 22A and B). Ultrastructural analysis of differentiated cell clusters by transmission electron microscopy revealed that many cells contained secretory vesicles exhibiting electron dense cores or rod-like structures, akin to what is observed in human pancreatic beta cells (FIG. 21F). To further investigate the functional properties of in vitro differentiated pancreatic beta cells, glucose stimulated insulin secretion assays were performed, in which the release of human C-peptide, a by-product of endogenous insulin biosynthesis secreted in an equimolar ratio to insulin, was measured. hESC-derived pancreatic beta cells analyzed at days 19-21 responded to an increase in glucose concentration from 2.8 mM to 16.7 mM by secreting 1.8±0.9-fold more C-peptide, a response similar to the 1.9±0.6-fold increase detected with human islets (FIG. 21G). Thus, pancreatic beta cells generated by the improved differentiation strategy described herein express critical pancreatic beta cell genes, synthesize high levels of mature insulin, exhibit ultrastructural features of bona fide pancreatic beta cells and secrete endogenous insulin in response to changes in physiological concentrations of glucose.

Example 18

hESC-Derived Pancreatic Beta Cells Remain Glucose Responsive after Short Term Transplantation

To determine whether hESC-derived pancreatic beta cells can maintain their glucose responsiveness in vivo, approximately 5 million cells were transplanted under the kidney capsule of immunodeficient mice (days 19-21 spheres consisting of progenitors and pancreatic beta cells). Mice transplanted with 4000 human islets served as controls. Seven to 10 days post-surgery, human C-peptide levels were measured in overnight-fasted mice, before and after the administration of a glucose bolus. As expected, mice that received human islet grafts exhibited low levels of insulin secretion upon fasting, followed by a marked increase in circulating insulin after glucose challenge (average of 221±116 pM, FIG. 23A) Similar to mice carrying human islets, fasted mice transplanted with hESC-derived pancreatic beta cells had low levels of circulating C-peptide. Upon glucose administration, C-peptide concentrations in sera of these mice also increased, albeit at lower levels than in mice transplanted with human islets (average of 40±28 pM, FIG. 23A). This lower number might be explained in part by the different numbers of cells transplanted in the human islet and pancreatic beta cell groups. Indeed, each human islet contains on average 1000 cells, of which 50% are pancreatic beta cells (Cabrera et al, 2006). Thus, 4000 human islets contain approximately 2.0×10⁶ bona fide pancreatic beta cells. Because hESC differentiated spheres contain on average 23% pancreatic beta cells, only about 1.15×10⁶ pancreatic beta cells were transplanted per mouse. Normalization based on pancreatic beta cell number indicates that hESC derived pancreatic beta cells secreted 70±48 pM human c-peptide per 2.0×10⁶ cells, representing approximately ⅓ of the insulin secreted from each human cadaveric pancreatic beta cell (FIG. 23A). Hematoxylin and Eosin staining, together with immunofluorescence analysis of the hESC grafts at 2 weeks post-transplantation demonstrated prominent islet-like structures positive for human C-peptide (FIGS. 23B and C). Pancreatic beta cells also maintained co-expression of the key pancreatic beta cell TFs PDX1, NKX6.1 and NKX2.2, and only a few cells co-expressed other hormones, such as glucagon and somatostatin (FIG. 23C). To further investigate the functional properties of hES derived pancreatic beta cells in vivo, clusters were transplanted under the kidney capsule of mice rendered diabetic through treatment with the pancreatic beta cell toxin streptozotocin. Mice that received grafts exhibit significantly reduced blood glucose (BG) levels at all time points analyzed when compared to control animals (FIG. 23D). While BG levels were significantly reduced in graft-bearing mice, they continued to exhibit hyperglycemic BG values over time. This is likely due to the limited number of pancreatic beta cells that can be transplanted under the kidney capsule in one mouse. It has previously been shown that 4,000 human islets are required to establish long-term euglycemia in diabetic mice. Transplantation of a smaller number of human islets (1,500 islets) reduces blood glucose levels only for 7 days post-transplantation, after which hyperglycemia returned (Fiaschi-Taesch et al, 2010). The surgical procedure described herein permits the transplantation of about 1.15×10⁶ pancreatic beta cells, substantially less than the approximately 2.0×10⁶ pancreatic beta cells present in the 4,000 human islets previously found to be required for the long-term reversal of diabetes. Hence, the observed reduction in BG levels, but lack of complete diabetes reversal in mice bearing hES-derived transplants, is not unexpected given this technical constraint. Taken together, the in vivo data demonstrate that hESC derived pancreatic beta cells maintain their differentiated phenotype and remain glucose responsive after a short engraftment period in vivo and highlights their potential therapeutic value.

Example 19

Efficient and Cost-Effective Production of Glucose Responsive Pancreatic Beta Cells from Pluripotent Stem Cells

Variations on the direct differentiation method disclosed herein (see, e.g., Examples 13 and 17) were also developed that yielded efficient and cost-effective production of functional pancreatic beta cells from pluripotent stem cells. Illustrated schematically in FIG. 24, one method according to the disclosure provides embryonic stem cells (e.g., human embryonic stem cells) that were exposed to retinoic acid and incubated for a sufficient time to see expression of PDX1. During this time, the cells were not exposed to bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), which can lead to precocious endocrine differentiation and, ultimately, the production of non-functional polyhormonal cells. PDX1⁺ cells were then exposed to 50 ng/ml epidermal growth factor (EGF) and 50 ng/ml keratinocyte growth factor (KGF or K) in DMEM basal media containing IX GLUTAMAX™ (Invitrogen), IX non-essential amino acids (Invitrogen) and serum-free IX B27supplement (Life Technologies) for an extended period of 24-48 hours under the culture conditions disclosed herein. The extended incubation of pancreatic progenitor PDX1⁺ cells in the absence of BMP led to the efficient production of PDX 1⁻/1NKX6.1⁺ pancreatic progenitor cells. The PDX1⁺NKX6.1⁺cells were then incubated in an optimized combination of growth factors to induce NGN3 expression while maintaining expression of PD1 and NKX6.1. The combination of factors used in the media work in combination to yield an effective method of direct differentiation of pluripotent stem cells to functional pancreatic beta cells. For example, gamma secretase inhibitor XX induces endocrine differentiation efficiently, but does not maintain any progenitor expression. In combination with the other factors disclosed herein, however, its presence is tolerated and progenitor expression is maintained. Specifically, the combination of factors includes 2 mM Glutamine (GLUTAMAX™ (Invitrogen), 10 μg/ml heparin, 1 mM cysteine, 10 μM zinc, 10 μM ALK inhibitor (Axxora), 0.5 uM BMP inhibitor (i.e., small molecule LDN-193189; Stemgent), 1 μM T3 (triiodothyronine), and 1 μM gamma secretase inhibitor XX. It is expected that the combination of factors is important in the gradual elaboration of endocrine function while retaining characteristics of progenitor cells. The results of the direct differentiation method as performed on embryonic stem cells is the efficient, direct differentiation of such cells into functional (glucose-responsive) pancreatic beta cells, as shown in FIG. 25. Alternative media and culture conditions are also compatible with the direct differentiation methods disclosed herein, as evidenced by the culture media used in the differentiation protocol described in Example 13 under Cell Culture.

In addition, the culture media in which the PDX1⁺/NKX6.1⁺ pancreatic progenitor cells were incubated was supplemented with vitamin C and BayK-8644. The addition of these two compounds led to the production of pancreatic beta cells of robust functionality. In particular, as described in Example 18, the pancreatic beta cells are glucose-responsive and remain responsive after transplantation.

The disclosure provides embodiments of the direct differentiation methods in which the PDX1⁺ pancreatic progenitor cell is exposed to an effective amount of either EGF or KGF, as well as the above-described method in which the cells were exposed to effective amounts (e.g., 50 ng/ml) of both EGF and KGF. Additional experiments established that the methods of direct differentiation could involve incubation of cells in culture media containing EGF and/or KGF for up to 32 days. Accordingly, the disclosure contemplates embodiments in which the PDX1⁺ cells are incubated in the presence of EGF and/or KGF for any time period between 24 hours and 32 days.

Thus, the direct differentiation methods disclosed herein that include vitamin C and BayK-8644 provide efficient, effective, quick and inexpensive approaches to differentiating pluripotent stem cells into functional pancreatic beta cells.

Example 20

Production of Glucose Responsive Pancreatic Beta Cells from Pluripotent Stem Cells Under Physiological Oxygen Levels

Additional experimentation has established that embodiments of the disclosed direct differentiation methods yield functional pancreatic beta cells following the protocol disclosed herein (see, e.g., Examples 13, 17 and 19), but with the additional feature that the cells are exposed to lower levels of oxygen, closer to the physiological situation found in vivo. The data show that pancreatic beta cells can be, and were, generated under reduced oxygen levels (5%) closer to normal physiological levels of about 4-5%. FIG. 27. The loss of functional properties upon reduction to physiological O₂ levels (approximately 4-5%) from ambient levels (approximately 20%) that had been observed with other approaches to the production of pancreatic beta cells is a critical shortcoming for cell therapy and transplantation. Cells cultured at ambient oxygen levels experience a loss of pancreatic beta cell features upon transplantation into recipients, where they are immediately exposed to physiological oxygen levels. Indeed, the data indicate that while some of the transplanted pancreatic beta cells maintain a functional phenotype, many lose essential functional features or undergo cell death. This reduction in functionality is connected to a loss of the differentiated phenotype and to a loss of the identity of the pancreatic beta cells. The disclosure herein of methods for the direct differentiation of pluripotent stem cells (e.g., embryonic stem cells), wherein the cells have been adapted to lower O₂ concentrations either during the pluripotent state or after generation of pancreatic progenitor cells, provides an advance over the state of the art in yielding a method for producing a cell therapy product in the form of a functional pancreatic beta cell useful for the treatment of diabetes by maintaining a functional pancreatic beta cell phenotype upon transplantation (FIG. 26).

Each of the references listed below and cited throughout the disclosure is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, or in relevant part, as would be apparent from context.

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The disclosed subject matter has been described with reference to various specific embodiments and techniques. It should be understood, however, that many variations and modifications may be made while remaining within the spirit and scope of the disclosed subject matter.

All patents and publications referenced or mentioned herein are indicative of the levels of skill of those skilled in the art to which the invention pertains, and each such referenced patent or publication is hereby specifically incorporated by reference to the same extent as if it had been incorporated by reference in its entirety individually or set forth herein in its entirety. Applicants reserve the right to physically incorporate into this specification any and all materials and information from any such cited patents or publications.

The specific methods and compositions described herein are representative of preferred embodiments and are exemplary and not intended as limitations on the scope of the invention. Other objects, aspects, and embodiments will occur to those skilled in the art upon consideration of this specification, and are encompassed within the spirit of the invention as defined by the scope of the claims. It will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art that varying substitutions and modifications may be made to the invention disclosed herein without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention. The invention illustratively described herein suitably may be practiced in the absence of any element or elements, or limitation or limitations, which is not specifically disclosed herein as essential. The methods and processes illustratively described herein suitably may be practiced in differing orders of steps, and the methods and processes are not necessarily restricted to the orders of steps indicated herein or in the claims.

The terms and expressions that have been employed are used as terms of description and not of limitation, and there is no intent in the use of such terms and expressions to exclude any equivalent of the features shown and described or portions thereof, but it is recognized that various modifications are possible within the scope of the invention as claimed. Thus, it will be understood that although the present invention has been specifically disclosed by preferred embodiments and optional features, modification and variation of the concepts herein disclosed may be resorted to by those skilled in the art, and that such modifications and variations are considered to be within the scope of this invention as defined by the appended claims and statements of the invention. Under no circumstances may the patent be interpreted to be limited to the specific examples or embodiments or methods specifically disclosed herein. Under no circumstances may the patent be interpreted to be limited by any statement made by any Examiner or any other official or employee of the Patent and Trademark Office unless such statement is specifically and without qualification or reservation expressly adopted in a responsive writing by Applicants. 

What is claimed:
 1. A method comprising: (a) contacting pancreatic endodermal progenitor cells with a composition consisting essentially of vitamin C, BayK-8644, heparin, zinc sulfate, Alk5 inhibitor II, LDN-193189, triiodothyronine (T3) thyroid hormone, and Compound E for three to fifteen days to generate a first population of cells; (b) contacting the first population of cells of step (a) with a second composition consisting essentially of vitamin C, BayK-8644, heparin, zinc sulfate, Alk5 inhibitor II, T3 thyroid hormone, cysteine, 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid, and R8428 for three to fifteen days to generate a second population of cells; and (c) culturing the second population of cells of step (b) as 3D aggregates in low-attachment plates for three to fifteen days to thereby generate a third cell population comprising functional pancreatic beta-like cells.
 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising administering the functional pancreatic beta-like cells of step (c) to a mammal in need thereof, wherein the mammal in need thereof has type I diabetes, type II diabetes, or type 1.5 diabetes.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the mammal is a human. 